S. E. Aldous, A Deer Browse Survey Method, Journal of Mammalogy, vol.25, issue.2, pp.130-136, 1944.

G. Aussenac, Ecology and ecophysiology of circum-Mediterranean firs in the context of climate change, Annals of Forest Science, vol.59, issue.8, pp.823-832, 2002.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00881894

D. Bates, M. Mächler, B. Bolker, and S. Walker, Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4, Journal of Statistical Software, vol.67, issue.1, p.51, 2014.

D. Bayer, S. Seifert, and H. Pretzsch, Structural crown properties of Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in mixed versus pure stands revealed by terrestrial laser scanning, Trees-Structure and Function, vol.27, issue.4, pp.1035-1047, 2013.

J. Bergquist and G. Örlander, Browsing damage by roe deer on Norway spruce seedlings planted on clearcuts of different ages: 2. Effect of seedling vigour, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.105, issue.1-3, pp.295-302, 1998.

R. Bergström and G. Bergqvist, Large Herbivore Browsing on Conifer Seedlings Related to Seedling Morphology, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, vol.14, issue.4, pp.361-367, 1999.

M. Bernard, V. Boulanger, J. Dupouey, L. Laurent, P. Montpied et al., Deer browsing promotes Norway spruce at the expense of silver fir in the forest regeneration phase, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.400, pp.269-277, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01595597

M. Bernard, X. Morin, S. Saïd, V. Boulanger, E. Granda et al., Are plant-ungulates interactions related to climate? Comparison of consumption indexes along elevation gradients across a latitudinal gradient of European sites, prep.)

J. Bodin, V. Badeau, E. Bruno, C. Cluzeau, J. Moisselin et al., Shifts of forest species along an elevational gradient in Southeast France: Climate change or stand maturation, Journal of Vegetation Science, vol.24, issue.2, pp.269-283, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01268182

P. Bodin and B. L. Wiman, The usefulness of stability concepts in forest management when coping with increasing climate uncertainties, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.242, issue.2-3, pp.541-552, 2007.

A. Bolte, T. Czajkowski, and T. Kompa, The north-eastern distribution range of European beech-A review, Forestry, vol.80, issue.4, pp.413-429, 2007.

H. Y. Chen and K. Klinka, Survival, growth, and allometry of planted Larix occidentalis seedlings in, 1998.

A. Geßler, C. Keitel, J. Kreuzwieser, R. Matyssek, W. Seiler et al., Potential risks for European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in a changing climate, Trees-Structure and Function, vol.21, issue.1, pp.1-11, 2007.

C. Grossiord, A. Granier, S. Ratcliffe, O. Bouriaud, H. Bruelheide et al., Tree diversity does not always improve resistance of forest ecosystems to drought, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.111, issue.41, pp.14812-14815, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01190150

H. Häsler and J. Senn, Ungulate browsing on European silver fir Abies alba: the role of occasions, food shortage and diet preferences, Wildlife Biology, vol.18, issue.1, pp.67-74, 2012.

A. E. Hessl and W. L. Baker, Spruce and Fir Regeneration and Climate in the Forest-Tundra Ecotone of Regeneration Spruce National Mountain Colorado, vol.29, pp.173-183, 2010.

G. M. Hilton and J. R. Packham, Variation in the masting of common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in northern Europe over two centuries (1800-2001), Forestry, vol.76, issue.3, pp.319-328, 2003.

G. Houle, Mast seeding in Abies balsamea , Acer saccharum cold temperate Betula alleghaniensis in an old growth, America forest of north-eastern North America, Journal of Ecology, vol.87, issue.3, pp.413-422, 2011.

C. M. Hulshof, N. G. Swenson, and M. D. Weiser, Tree height-diameter allometry across the United States, Ecology and Evolution, vol.5, issue.6, pp.1193-1204, 2015.

I. , Changements climatiques 2013, les éléments scientifiques, 2013.

H. Jactel and E. G. Brockerhoff, Tree diversity reduces herbivory by forest insects, Ecology Letters, vol.10, issue.9, pp.835-848, 2007.

M. Jourdan, C. Piedallu, J. Baudry, and X. Morin, Tree diversity and the temporal stability of mountain forest productivity: testing the effect of asynchrony, species composition and climate

T. Jucker, O. Bouriaud, D. Avacaritei, and D. A. Coomes, Stabilizing effects of diversity on aboveground wood production in forest ecosystems: linking patterns and processes, Ecology Letters, vol.17, issue.12, pp.1560-1569, 2014.

A. S. Jump, J. M. Hunt, and J. Peñuelas, Climate relationships of growth and establishment across the atitudinal range of Fagus sylvatica in the Montseny Mounyains, northeast Spain, vol.14, pp.507-518, 2007.

P. E. Kauppi, K. Mielikainen, K. Kuusela, P. E. Kauppi, K. Mielikainen et al., Biomass and Carbon Budget of European Forests, vol.256, pp.70-74, 1971.

E. Klimo, H. Hager, and J. Kulhavý, Spruce Monocultures in Central Europe-Problems and Prospects, 2000.

W. D. Koenig, J. M. Knops, W. J. Carmen, and I. S. Pearse, What drives masting? The phenological synchrony hypothesis, Ecology, vol.96, issue.1, pp.184-192, 2015.

Y. Kullberg and R. Bergström, Winter browsing by large herbivores on planted deciduous seedlings in southern Sweden, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, vol.16, issue.4, pp.371-378, 2001.

S. Kumar and E. Shibata, Effects of deer browsing on the survival and growth of Abies homolepis and Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis seedlings after fencing on Mt, Ohdaigahara. Journal of Forest Research, 2007.

F. Lebourgeois, N. Gomez, P. E. Pinto, and P. Mérian, Mixed stands reduce Abies alba tree-ring sensitivity to summer drought in the Vosges mountains, Europe. Forest Ecology and Management, vol.303, pp.61-71, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01003334

M. Legay, T. Cordonnier, and J. Dhôte, Des forêts mélangées pour composer avec les changements climatiques, Revue Forestière Française, vol.60, issue.2, pp.181-190, 2008.

J. Lendzion and C. Leuschner, Growth of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) saplings is limited by elevated atmospheric vapour pressure deficits, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.256, issue.4, pp.648-655, 2008.

C. Parmesan and G. Yohe, A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems, Nature, p.37, 2003.

J. Peñuelas and M. Boada, A global change-induced biome shift in the Montseny mountains (NE Spain), Global Change Biology, vol.9, issue.2, pp.131-140, 2003.

C. Piedallu, V. Perez, J. Gégout, F. Lebourgeois, and R. Bertrand, Impact potentiel du changement climatique sur la distribution de l'Epicéa, du Sapin, du Hêtre et du Chêne sessile en France, Revue Forestière Française, issue.6, pp.567-593, 2009.

P. E. Pinto, Ecologie et croissance de Abies alba Mill, 2008.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pastel-00003643

P. E. Pinto and J. Gégout, Assessing the nutritional and climatic response of temperate tree species in the Vosges Mountains, Annals of Forest Science, vol.62, pp.761-770, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00883931

G. Piovesan and J. M. Adams, Masting behaviour in beech: linking reproduction and climatic variation, Canadian Journal of Botany, vol.79, issue.9, pp.1039-1047, 2001.

H. Pretzsch, Species-specific allometric scaling under self-thinning: Evidence from long-term plots in forest stands, Oecologia, vol.146, issue.4, pp.572-583, 2006.

H. Pretzsch, Canopy space filling and tree crown morphology in mixed-species stands compared with monocultures, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.327, pp.251-264, 2014.

J. Rameau, D. Mansion, and G. Dumé, Flore forestière française. Guide écologique illustré. 2. Montagnes. (M. de l'Agriculture et de la forêt Institut pour la Développement Forestier, 1993.

C. Redjadj, G. Darmon, D. Maillard, T. Chevrier, D. Bastianelli et al., Intra-and interspecific differences in diet quality and composition in a large herbivore community, PLoS ONE, issue.2, p.9, 2014.

P. Saccone, S. Delzon, P. Jean-philippe, J. J. Brun, and R. Michalet, The role of biotic interactions in altering tree seedling responses to an extreme climatic event, Journal of Vegetation Science, vol.20, issue.3, pp.403-414, 2009.

E. M. Schauber, D. Kelly, P. Turchin, C. Simon, W. G. Lee et al., Masting by eighteen New Zealand plant species : The role of temperature as a synchronizing C cue, Ecology, vol.83, issue.5, pp.1214-1225, 2002.

D. Storms, P. Aubry, J. Hamann, S. Saïd, H. Fritz et al., Seasonal variation in diet composition and similarity of sympatric red deer Cervus elaphus and roe deer Capreolus capreolus, Wildlife Biology, vol.14, pp.237-250, 2008.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00428225

W. Thuiller, S. Lavorel, M. B. Araujo, M. T. Sykes, and I. C. Prentice, Climate change threats to plant diversity in Europe, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.102, issue.23, pp.8245-8250, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00274241

L. Tingstad, S. L. Olsen, K. Klanderud, V. Vandvik, and M. Ohlson, Temperature, precipitation and biotic interactions as determinants of tree seedling recruitment across the tree line ecotone, Oecologia, vol.179, issue.2, pp.599-608, 2015.

W. Tinner, D. Colombaroli, O. Heiri, P. D. Henne, M. Steinacher et al., The past ecology of Abies alba provides new perspectives on future responses of silver fir forests to global warming, Ecological Monographs, vol.83, issue.4, pp.419-439, 2013.

M. Toïgo, P. Vallet, T. Perot, J. D. Bontemps, C. Piedallu et al., Overyielding in mixed forests decreases with site productivity, Journal of Ecology, vol.103, issue.2, pp.502-512, 2015.

P. Vallet and T. Pérot, Silver fir stand productivity is enhanced when mixed with Norway spruce: Evidence based on large-scale inventory data and a generic modelling approach, Journal of Vegetation Science, vol.22, issue.5, pp.932-942, 2011.

M. Vilà, A. Carrillo-gavilán, J. Vayreda, H. Bugmann, J. Fridman et al., Disentangling Biodiversity and Climatic Determinants of Wood Production, PLoS ONE, vol.8, issue.2, 2013.

S. Wagner, C. Collet, P. Madsen, T. Nakashizuka, R. D. Nyland et al., Beech regeneration research: From ecological to silvicultural aspects, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.259, issue.11, pp.2172-2182, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01976235

J. L. Walck, S. N. Hidayati, K. W. Dixon, K. Thompson, and P. Poschlod, Climate change and plant regeneration from seed, Global Change Biology, vol.17, issue.6, pp.2145-2161, 2011.

G. Walther, E. Post, P. Convey, A. Menzel, C. Parmesan et al., Ecological responses to recent climate change, Nature, pp.389-395, 2002.

A. S. Watt, On the ecology of British beechwoods with special reference to their regeneration. Part II, Sections II and III. The development and structure of beech communities on the Sussex downs (continued), Journal of Ecology, vol.13, issue.1, pp.27-73, 1925.

S. Yachi and M. Loreau, Biodiversity and ecosystem productivity in a fluctuating environment: The insurance hypothesis, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.96, issue.4, pp.1463-1468, 1999.

D. J. Augustine, L. E. Frelich, and P. A. Jordan, Evidence for two alternate stable states in an ungulate grazing system, Ecol. Appl, vol.8, issue.4, pp.1260-1269, 1998.

L. Augusto, P. Bonnaud, and J. Ranger, Impact of tree species on forest soil acidification, For. Ecol. Manage, vol.105, issue.1-3, pp.67-78, 1998.

D. Bates, M. Mächler, B. Bolker, and S. Walker, Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4, J. Stat. Softw, vol.67, issue.1, p.51, 2014.

J. Beguin, J. Tremblay, N. Thiffault, D. Pothier, and S. D. Côté, Management of forest regeneration in boreal and temperate deer forest systems: challenges, guidelines, and research gaps, Ecosphere, vol.7, issue.10, pp.1-16, 2016.

U. Breitenmoser, Large predators in the Alps: the fall and rise of man's competitors, Biol. Cons, vol.83, issue.3, pp.279-289, 1998.

C. Canellas, A. Gibelin, P. Lassègues, M. Kerdoncuff, P. Dandin et al., Les normales climatiques spatialisées Aurelhy 1981-2010: températures et précipitations. Rubrique: Climatologie, pp.47-55, 2014.

C. Casabon and D. Pothier, Browsing of tree regeneration by white-tailed deer in large clearcuts on Anticosti Island, Quebec. For. Ecol. Manage, vol.253, pp.112-119, 2007.

S. B. Castleberry, W. M. Ford, K. V. Miller, and W. P. Smith, Influences of herbivory and canopy opening size on forest regeneration in a southern bottomland hardwood forest, For. Ecol. Manage, vol.131, issue.1-3, pp.57-64, 2000.

C. Clasen, V. C. Griess, and T. Knoke, Financial consequences of losing admixed tree species: a new approach to value increased financial risks by ungulate browsing. For, Policy Econ, vol.13, issue.6, pp.503-511, 2011.

D. A. Coomes, D. F. Burslem, and W. D. Simonson, Forests and global change, 2014.

S. D. Côté, T. P. Rooney, J. Tremblay, C. Dussault, and D. M. Waller, Ecological impacts of deer overabundance, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst, vol.35, issue.1, pp.113-147, 2004.

D. Jager, N. R. Cogger, B. J. Thomsen, and M. A. , Interactive effects of flooding and deer (Odocoileus virginianus) browsing on floodplain forest recruitment, For. Ecol. Manage, vol.303, pp.11-19, 2013.

J. L. Farrar, . Ottawa, and . Ont, In: Fides (Ed.), Trees in Canada. National Resources of Canada, Canadian Forestry Service, 1995.

N. A. Fisichelli, L. E. Frelich, and P. B. Reich, Sapling growth responses to warmer temperatures ''cooled" by browse pressure, Glob. Change Biol, vol.18, issue.11, pp.3455-3463, 2012.

R. M. Gill, A review of damage by mammals in North temperate forests. 1. Deer, Forestry, vol.65, issue.2, pp.145-169, 1992.

P. Heuzé, A. Schnitzler, and F. Klein, Consequences of increased deer browsing winter on silver fir and spruce regeneration in the Southern Vosges mountains: implications for forest management, Ann. For. Sci, vol.62, pp.175-181, 2005.

P. Heuzé, A. Schnitzler, and F. Klein, Is browsing the major factor of silver fir decline in the Vosges Mountains of France?, For. Ecol. Manage, vol.217, issue.2-3, pp.219-228, 2005.

B. Hidding, J. Tremblay, and S. D. Côté, A large herbivore triggers alternative successional trajectories in the boreal forest, Ecology, 2013.

M. Hornung, Acidification of soils by trees and forests, Soil Use Manag, vol.1, issue.1, pp.24-27, 1985.

C. Kiffner, E. Rößiger, O. Trisl, R. Schulz, and F. Rühe, Probability of recent bark stripping a low mountain range in Germany a preliminary analysis, Silva Fennica, vol.42, issue.1, pp.125-134, 2008.

T. Knoke, C. Ammer, B. Stimm, and R. Mosandl, Admixing broadleaved to coniferous tree species: a review on yield, ecological stability and economics, Eur. J. Forest Res, vol.127, issue.2, pp.89-101, 2008.

F. Lebourgeois, C. B. Rathgeber, and E. Ulrich, Sensitivity of French temperate coniferous forests to climate variability and extreme events (Abies alba, Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris), J. Veg. Sci, vol.21, issue.2, pp.364-376, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01195031

A. Mauri, D. De-rigo, and G. Caudullo, Abies alba in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats, European Atlas of Forest Tree Species, pp.48-49, 2016.

J. C. Mcgarvey, N. A. Bourg, J. R. Thompson, W. J. Mcshea, and X. Shen, Effects of twenty years of deer exclusion on woody vegetation at three life-history stages in a mid-Atlantic temperate deciduous forest, Northeastern Nat, vol.20, issue.3, pp.451-468, 2013.

X. Morin, L. Fahse, C. De-mazancourt, M. Scherer-lorenzen, and H. Bugmann, Temporal stability in forest productivity increases with tree diversity due to asynchrony in species dynamics, Ecol. Lett, vol.17, issue.12, pp.1526-1535, 2014.

R. Motta, Wild ungulate browsing, natural regeneration and silviculture in the Italian Alps, J. Sustain. Forest, vol.8, issue.2, pp.35-53, 1999.

R. Motta, Ungulate impact on rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) height structure in mountain forests in the eastern Italian Alps, For. Ecol. Manage, vol.181, issue.1, pp.139-150, 2003.

, References !

A. A. Agrawal, Tradeoffs and negative correlations in Evolutionary Ecology.-Evol. since Darwin first, vol.150, pp.243-268, 2010.

C. H. Albert, When and how should intraspecific trait variability be considered in plant ecology?-Perspect, Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst, vol.13, pp.217-225, 2011.

I. Auer, HISTALP-historical instrumental climatological surface time series of the Greater Alpine Region, Int. J. Climatol, vol.46, pp.17-46, 2007.

M. P. Ayres, Plant defense, herbivory, and climate change, Biot. Interact. Glob. Chang, vol.75, pp.75-94, 1993.

R. V. Barbehenn and C. P. Constabel, Tannins in plant-herbivore interactions, Phytochemistry, vol.72, pp.1551-1565, 2011.

K. E. Barton, Ontogenetic patterns in the mechanisms of tolerance to herbivory in Plantago, Ann. Bot, vol.112, pp.711-720, 2013.

D. Bates, Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4, J. Stat. Softw, vol.67, pp.1-51, 2014.

M. Bernard, Deer browsing promotes Norway spruce at the expense of silver fir in the forest regeneration phase, Ecol. Manage, vol.400, pp.269-277, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01595597

D. I. Bolnick, The Ecology of Individuals: Incidence and Implications of Individual Specialization, Am. Nat, vol.161, pp.1-28, 2003.

V. Boulanger, Ungulates increase forest plant species richness to the benefit of non-forest specialists, Glob Chang Biol, vol.24, pp.485-495, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01592230

J. P. Bryant, Carbon/Nutrient Balance of Boreal Plants in Relation to Vertebrate Herbivory, Oikos, vol.40, pp.357-368, 1983.

D. Carmona, Plant traits that predict resistance to herbivores, Funct. Ecol, vol.25, pp.358-367, 2011.

D. Chessel, The ade4 package-I: One-table methods, vol.4, pp.5-10, 2004.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00427558

C. Clasen, Forest Policy and Economics Financial consequences of losing admixed tree species: A new approach to value increased financial risks by ungulate browsing.-For, Policy Econ, vol.13, pp.503-511, 2011.

J. H. Cornelissen, Handbook of protocols for standardised and easy measurement of plant functional traits worldwide, Aust. J. Bot, vol.51, pp.335-380, 2003.

A. Elger, Plant ontogeny and chemical defense: older seedlings are better defended, Oikos, vol.118, pp.767-773, 2009.

M. J. Fields and C. M. Orians, Specificity of Phenolic Glycoside Induction in Willow Seedlings (Salix sericea) in Response to Herbivory, J. Chem. Ecol, vol.32, pp.2647-2656, 2006.

N. Fisichelli, Sapling growth responses to warmer temperatures 'cooled' by browse pressure, Glob. Chang. Biol, vol.18, pp.3455-3463, 2012.

D. Furstenburg and W. Van-hoven, Condensed tannin as anti-defoliate agent against browsing by giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in the Kruger National Park, Biochem. Physiol, vol.107, pp.425-431, 1994.

M. Garel, Are abundance indices derived from spotlight counts reliable to monitor red deer Cervus elaphus populations?-Wildlife Biol, vol.16, pp.77-84, 2010.

J. P. Grime, Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to ecological and evolutionary theory, Am. Nat, vol.111, pp.1169-1194, 1977.

D. Hattas, Phytochemistry Differential phenolic profiles in six African savanna woody species in relation to antiherbivore defense, Phytochemistry, vol.72, pp.1796-1803, 2011.

J. G. Hamilton, The carbon-nutrient balance hypothesis: Its rise and fall, Ecol. Lett, vol.4, pp.86-95, 2001.

C. D. Harvell, The ecology and evolution of inducible defenses, Q. Rev. Biol, vol.65, pp.323-340, 1990.

H. Häsler and J. Senn, Ungulate browsing on European silver fir Abies alba: the role of occasions, food shortage and diet preferences.-Wildlife Biol, vol.18, pp.67-74, 2012.

D. A. Herms and W. J. Mattson, The Dilemma of Plants: to grow or defend, Q. Rev. Biol, vol.67, pp.283-335, 1992.

A. Herrero, From the individual to the landscape and back: Time-varying effects of climate and herbivory on tree sapling growth at distribution limits, J. Ecol, vol.104, pp.430-442, 2016.

K. Keefover-ring, Growth and chemical responses of trembling aspen to simulated browsing and ungulate saliva, J. Plant. Ecol, vol.4, pp.474-484, 2016.

S. Kuo, Methods of soil analysis. Part 3: Chemical methods, Soil Sci. Soc. Am, pp.869-919, 1996.

M. D. Lowman, Variation in leaf toughness and phenolic content among five species of Australian rain forest trees.-Aust, J. Ecol, vol.8, pp.17-25, 1983.

K. Loyttyniemi, On repeated browsing of Scots pine saplings by moose (Alces alces).-Silva Fenn, vol.19, pp.387-391, 1985.

G. Massei, Chemical and morphological variation of Mediterranean woody evergreen species: Do plants respond to ungulate browsing?, J. Veg. Sci, vol.11, pp.1-8, 2000.

A. T. Moles and M. Westoby, Seed size and plant strategy across the whole life cycle, Oikos, vol.113, pp.91-105, 2006.

N. Moran and W. D. Hamilton, Low nutritive quality as defense against herbivores, J. Theor. Biol, vol.86, pp.247-254, 1980.

C. M. Orians, Herbivore-induced resource sequestration in plants: why bother ?, Oecologia, vol.167, pp.1-9, 2011.

N. Pérez-harguindeguy, Leaf traits and herbivore selection in the field and in cafeteria experiments, Austral. Ecol, vol.28, pp.642-650, 2003.

C. Piedallu, Présentation du portail web SILVAE : système d'informations localisées sur la végétation, les arbres et leur environnement, Rev. For. française, vol.66, pp.41-50, 2014.

E. Post and C. Pedersen, Opposing plant community responses to warming with and without herbivores, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, vol.105, pp.12353-12358, 2008.

W. S. Rasband, Image J: Image processing and analysis in Java, 1997.

P. B. Reich and J. Oleksyn, Global patterns of plant leaf N and P in relation to temperature and latitude, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, vol.101, pp.11001-11006, 2004.

A. D. Richardson, Within-crown foliar plasticity of western hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla in relation to stand age, Ann. Bot, vol.88, pp.1007-1015, 2001.

A. C. Robbins, Role of tannins in defending plants against ruminants: reduction in protein availability, Ecol. Soc. Am, vol.68, pp.98-107, 2012.

L. Sallas, Contrasting effects of elevated carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on Rubisco activity, chlorophyll fluorescence, needle ultrastructure and secondary metabolites in conifer seedlings, Tree Physiol, vol.23, pp.97-108, 2003.

J. Salminen and M. Karonen, Chemical ecology of tannins and other phenolics: we need a change in approach, Funct. Ecol, vol.25, pp.325-338, 2011.

G. Sanson, Measurement of leaf biomechanical properties in studies of herbivory: Opportunities, problems and procedures, Austral. Ecol, vol.26, pp.535-546, 2001.

J. C. Schultz, Flexible resource allocation during plant defense responses.-Front, Plant Sci, vol.4, pp.1-12, 2013.

J. Schwachtje and I. T. Baldwin, Why does herbivore attack reconfigure primary metabolism?Plant Physiol, vol.146, pp.845-851, 2008.

T. Seldal, How to induce defense responses in wild plant populations? Using bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) as example, Ecol. Evol, vol.7, pp.1762-1769, 2017.

A. D. Steinbrenner, Herbivore-Induced Changes in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) Primary Metabolism : A Whole Plant Perspective, J. Chem. Ecol, vol.37, pp.1294-1303, 2011.

D. Storms, Seasonal variation in diet composition and similarity of sympatric red deer Cervus elaphus and roe deer Capreolus capreolus, Wildlife Biol, vol.2, pp.237-250, 2008.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00428225

W. Thuiller, Climate change threats to plant diversity in Europe, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, vol.102, pp.8245-8250, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00274241

M. G. Tjoelker, Changes in leaf nitrogen and carbohydrates underlie temperature and CO2 acclimation of dark respiration in five boreal tree species, Plant, Cell Environ, vol.22, pp.767-778, 1999.

M. Väisänen, Phenolic Responses of Mountain Crowberry (Empetrum nigrum ssp. hermaphroditum) to Global Climate Change are Compound Specific and Depend on Grazing by Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), J. Chem. Ecol, vol.39, pp.1390-1399, 2013.

J. F. Vincent, Structural biomaterials, 1990.

J. P. Vincent, Kilometric Index as Biological Indicator for Monitoring Forest Roe Deer Populations, Acta Theriol. (Warsz), vol.36, pp.315-328, 1991.

J. F. Vincent, Plants, Biomechanics-materials, a practical approach, pp.165-191, 1992.

C. Violle, Let the concept of trait be functional!-Oikos, vol.116, pp.882-892, 2007.

M. Westoby, The time value of leaf area, Am. Nat, vol.155, pp.649-656, 2000.

M. Westoby and I. J. Wright, Land-plant ecology on the basis of functional traits, Trends Ecol. Evol, vol.21, pp.261-268, 2006.

I. J. Wright, The worldwide leaf economics spectrum, Nature, vol.428, pp.821-827, 2004.

!. References,

G. Aussenac, Ecology and ecophysiology of circum-Mediterranean firs in the context of climate change, Annals of Forest Science, vol.59, issue.8, pp.823-832, 2002.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00881894

D. Bachelet, J. M. Lenihan, C. Daly, and R. P. Neilson, Interactions between fire, grazing and climate change at Wind Cave National Park, SD. Ecological Modelling, vol.134, issue.2-3, pp.229-244, 2000.

D. Bates, M. Mächler, B. Bolker, and S. Walker, Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4, Journal of Statistical Software, vol.67, issue.1, p.51, 2014.

M. Becker, Bilan de santé actuel et rétrospectif du sapin (Abies alba Mill.) dans les Vosges.Etude écologique et dendrochronologique, Annals of Forest Science, vol.44, issue.4, pp.379-472, 1987.

E. Belotti, J. Kreisinger, D. Romportl, M. Heurich, and L. Bufka, Eurasian lynx hunting red deer: Is there an influence of a winter enclosure system?, European Journal of Wildlife Research, vol.60, issue.3, pp.441-457, 2014.

J. Bergquist and G. Örlander, Browsing damage by roe deer on Norway spruce seedlings planted on clearcuts of different ages: 2. Effect of seedling vigour, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.105, issue.1-3, pp.295-302, 1998.

R. Bergström and G. Bergqvist, Large Herbivore Browsing on Conifer Seedlings Related to Seedling Morphology, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, vol.14, issue.4, pp.361-367, 1999.

M. Bernard, V. Boulanger, J. Dupouey, L. Laurent, P. Montpied et al., Deer browsing promotes Norway spruce at the expense of silver fir in the forest regeneration phase, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.400, pp.269-277, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01595597

V. Boulanger, C. Baltzinger, S. Saïd, P. Ballon, J. Picard et al., Ranking temperate woody species along a gradient of browsing by deer, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.258, issue.7, pp.1397-1406, 2009.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inria-00412521

D. M. Cairns and J. Moen, Herbivory influences tree lines, Journal of Ecology, vol.92, issue.6, pp.1019-1024, 2004.

R. F. Carden, C. M. Carlin, F. Marnell, D. Mcelholm, J. Hetherington et al., Distribution and range expansion of deer in Ireland, Mammal Review, vol.41, issue.4, pp.313-325, 2011.

T. Chevrier, C. Redjadj, D. Maillard, A. Loison, F. Klein et al., Quel est l'impact d'une communauté d'ongulés sur les essences forestières ? Faune Sauvage, vol.312, pp.32-38, 2016.

T. Chevrier, S. Saïd, O. Widmer, J. Hamard, C. Saint-andrieux et al., The oak browsing index correlates linearly with roe deer density: A new indicator for deer management?, European Journal of Wildlife Research, vol.58, issue.1, pp.17-22, 2012.

L. Christensen, M. B. Coughenour, J. E. Ellis, and . Chen, Vulnerability of the asian typical steppe to grazing and climate change, Climatic Change, vol.63, issue.3, pp.351-368, 2004.

D. A. Coomes, R. B. Allen, D. M. Forsyth, and W. G. Lee, Factors preventing the recovery of New Zealand forests following control of invasive deer, Conservation Biology, vol.17, issue.2, pp.450-459, 2003.

J. Coppes, F. Burghardt, R. Hagen, R. Suchant, and V. Braunisch, Human recreation affects spatiotemporal habitat use patterns in red deer (Cervus elaphus), PLoS ONE, vol.12, issue.5, pp.1-19, 2017.

D. Bello, F. Lep?, J. Sebastià, and M. T. , Variations in species and functional plant diversity along climatic and grazing gradients, Ecography, vol.29, issue.6, pp.801-810, 2006.

J. Diaci, Regeneration dynamics in a Norway spruce plantation on a silver fir-beech forest site in the Slovenian Alps, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.161, issue.1-3, pp.27-38, 2002.

J. Diaci, T. Adamic, and A. Rozman, Gap recruitment and partitioning in an old-growth beech forest of the Dinaric Mountains: Influences of light regime, herb competition and browsing, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.285, pp.20-28, 2012.

C. Feng, H. Wang, N. Lu, and X. M. Tu, Log transformation: Application and interpretation in biomedical research, Statistics in Medicine, vol.32, issue.2, pp.230-239, 2013.

N. A. Fisichelli, L. E. Frelich, and P. B. Reich, Sapling growth responses to warmer temperatures "cooled" by browse pressure, Global Change Biology, vol.18, issue.11, pp.3455-3463, 2012.

R. J. Fuller and R. M. Gill, Ecological impacts of increasing numbers of deer in British woodland, Forestry, vol.74, issue.3, pp.193-199, 2001.

N. Gomez, Quel avenir pour le sapin et l'épicéa ? Synthèse bibliographique sur l'autécologie et la vulnérabilité comparée du sapin et de l'épicéa dans le cadre des changements climatiques. Rendez-Vous Techniques de l'ONF, pp.3-6, 2012.

M. Hallinger, M. Manthey, and M. Wilmking, Establishing a missing link: warm summers and winter snow cover promote shrub expansion into alpine tundra in Scandinavia, New Phytologist, vol.186, issue.4, pp.890-899, 2010.

S. Harris, P. Morris, S. Wray, and D. Yalden, A review of British mammals : population estimates and conservation status of British mammals other than cetaceans, Jncc, p.216, 1995.

H. Häsler and J. Senn, Ungulate browsing on European silver fir Abies alba: the role of occasions, food shortage and diet preferences, Wildlife Biology, vol.18, issue.1, pp.67-74, 2012.

S. Heinrichs, W. Winterhoff, and W. Schmidt, Vegetation dynamics of beech forests on limestone in central Germany over half a century-effects of climate change, forest man, Biodiversity and Ecology, vol.4, pp.49-61, 2012.

A. Herrero, P. Almaraz, R. Zamora, J. Castro, and J. A. Hódar, From the individual to the landscape and back: Time-varying effects of climate and herbivory on tree sapling growth at distribution limits, Journal of Ecology, vol.104, issue.2, pp.430-442, 2016.

A. Herrero, R. Zamora, J. Castro, and J. A. Hódar, Limits of pine forest distribution at the treeline: Herbivory matters, Plant Ecology, vol.213, issue.3, pp.459-469, 2012.

P. Heuzé, A. Schnitzler, and F. Klein, Consequences of increased deer browsing winter on silver fir and spruce regeneration in the Southern Vosges mountains: Implications for forest management, Annals of Forest Science, vol.62, pp.175-181, 2005.

P. Heuzé, A. Schnitzler, and F. Klein, Is browsing the major factor of silver fir decline in the Vosges Mountains of France? Forest Ecology and Management, vol.217, pp.219-228, 2005.

R. J. Hijmans, S. E. Cameron, J. L. Parra, P. G. Jones, and A. Jarvis, Very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas, International Journal of Climatology, vol.25, issue.15, pp.1965-1978, 2005.

R. R. Hofmann, Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants: a comparative view of their digestive system, vol.78, pp.443-457, 1989.

S. W. Husheer, Q. W. Hansen, and S. C. Urlich, Effects of red deer on tree regeneration and growth in Aorangi Forest, Wairarapa. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 2005.

D. N. Karger, O. Conrad, J. Böhner, T. Kawohl, H. Kreft et al., Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface areas, Scientific Data, vol.4, pp.1-20, 2017.

P. S. Karlsson, O. Tenow, H. Bylund, J. Hoogesteger, and M. Weih, Determinants of mountain birch growth in situ: Effects of temperature and herbivory, Ecography, vol.27, issue.5, pp.659-667, 2004.

P. E. Kauppi, K. Mielikainen, K. Kuusela, P. E. Kauppi, K. Mielikainen et al., Biomass and Carbon Budget of European Forests, vol.256, pp.70-74, 1971.

B. Konôpka and J. Pajtík, Why was browsing by red deer more frequent but represented less consumed mass in young maple than in ash trees?, ! Journal of Forest Science, issue.10, pp.431-438, 2015.

Y. Kullberg and R. Bergström, Winter browsing by large herbivores on planted deciduous seedlings in southern Sweden, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, vol.16, issue.4, pp.371-378, 2001.

G. Kunstler, C. H. Albert, B. Courbaud, S. Lavergne, W. Thuiller et al., Effects of competition on tree radial-growth vary in importance but not in intensity along climatic gradients, Journal of Ecology, vol.99, issue.1, pp.300-312, 2011.

A. D. Kupferschmid and H. Bugmann, Effect of microsites, logs and ungulate browsing on Picea abies regeneration in a mountain forest, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.205, issue.1-3, pp.251-265, 2005.

A. Kuznetsova, P. B. Brockhoff, and R. H. Christensen, , 2017.

S. Lefort, J. Tremblay, F. Fournier, F. Potvin, and J. Huot, Importance of balsam fir as winter forage for white-tailed deer at the northeastern limit of their distribution range, vol.14, pp.109-116, 2007.

M. Lindner, M. Maroschek, S. Netherer, A. Kremer, A. Barbati et al., Climate change impacts, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability of European forest ecosystems, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.259, issue.4, pp.698-709, 2010.

S. Mattioli, P. G. Meneguz, A. Brugnoli, and S. Nicoloso, Red Deer in Italy: Recent Changes in Range and Numbers, Hystrix, vol.12, issue.1, pp.27-35, 2001.

J. M. Milner, C. Bonenfant, A. Mysterud, J. Gaillard, S. Csányi et al., Temporal and spatial development of red deer harvesting in Europe: Biological and cultural factors, Journal of Applied Ecology, vol.43, issue.4, pp.721-734, 2006.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00428007

N. Morellet, J. Gaillard, A. J. Hewison, P. Ballon, Y. Boscardin et al., Indicators of ecological change: New tools for managing populations of large herbivores, Journal of Applied Ecology, vol.44, issue.3, pp.634-643, 2007.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00185966

R. Motta, Ungulate impact on rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) height structure in mountain forests in the eastern Italian Alps, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.181, issue.1, pp.139-150, 2003.

A. Munier, L. Hermanutz, J. D. Jacobs, and K. Lewis, The interacting effects of temperature, ground disturbance, and herbivory on seedling establishment: Implications for treeline advance with climate warming, Plant Ecology, vol.210, issue.1, pp.19-30, 2010.

H. Okarma, B. J?drzejewska, W. J?drzejewski, Z. A. Krasi?ski, and L. Mi?kowski, The roles of predation, snow cover, acorn crop, and man-related factors on ungulate mortality in Bia?owie?a Primeval Forest, Acta Theriologica, vol.40, issue.2, pp.197-217, 1995.

J. Oleksyn, J. Modrzy?ski, M. G. Tjoelker, R. Zytkowiak, P. B. Reich et al., Growth and physiology of Picea abies populations from elevational transects: Common garden evidence for altitudinal ecotypes and cold adaptation, Functional Ecology, vol.12, issue.4, pp.573-590, 1998.

J. Olofsson, L. Oksanen, T. Callaghan, P. E. Hulme, T. Oksanen et al., Herbivores inhibit climate-driven shrub expansion on the tundra, Global Change Biology, vol.15, issue.11, pp.2681-2693, 2009.

K. L. Parker, M. P. Gillingham, T. A. Hanley, and C. T. Robbins, Foraging efficiency: Energy expenditure versus energy gain in free-ranging black-tailed deer, Canadian Journal of Zoology, vol.74, issue.3, pp.442-450, 1996.

M. Pellerin, S. Saïd, E. Richard, J. L. Hamann, C. Dubois-coli et al., Impact of deer on temperate forest vegetation and woody debris as protection of forest regeneration against browsing, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.260, issue.4, pp.429-437, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539518

P. E. Pinto and J. Gégout, Assessing the nutritional and climatic response of temperate tree species in the Vosges Mountains, Annals of Forest Science, vol.62, pp.761-770, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00883931

E. Post and C. Pedersen, Opposing plant community responses to warming with and without herbivores, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.105, pp.12353-12358, 2008.

J. Rameau, D. Mansion, and G. Dumé, Flore forestière française. Guide écologique illustré. 2. Montagnes. (M. de l'Agriculture et de la forêt Institut pour la Développement Forestier, 1993.

A. Rammig, L. Fahse, P. Bebi, and H. Bugmann, Wind disturbance in mountain forests: Simulating the impact of management strategies, seed supply, and ungulate browsing on forest succession, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.242, issue.2-3, pp.142-154, 2007.

S. Rasmann, L. Pellissier, E. Defossez, H. Jactel, and G. Kunstler, Climate-driven change in plant-insect interactions along elevation gradients, Functional Ecology, vol.28, issue.1, pp.46-54, 2014.

C. Redjadj, Etude inter-et intra-spécifique des variations spatio-temporelles de l'utilisation des ressources alimentaires au sein d'une communauté de grands herbivores de montagne, 2010.

F. Reimoser and R. Putman, Impacts of wild ungulates on vegetation: costs and benefits. Ungulate Management in Europe: Problems and Practices, pp.144-191, 2010.

P. C. Renaud, H. Verheyden-tixier, and B. Dumont, Damage to saplings by red deer ( Cervus elaphus ): effect of foliage height and structure, vol.181, pp.31-37, 2003.

A. Rozman, J. Diaci, A. Krese, G. Fidej, and D. Rozenbergar, Forest regeneration dynamics following bark beetle outbreak in Norway spruce stands: Influence of meso-relief, forest edge distance and deer browsing, 2015.

M. Sankaran, N. P. Hanan, R. J. Scholes, J. Ratnam, D. J. Augustine et al., Determinants of woody cover in African savannas, Nature, vol.438, issue.7069, pp.846-849, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00304266

F. E. Schwab and M. D. Pitt, Moose selection of canopy cover types related to operative temperature, forage, and snow depth, Canadian Journal of Zoology, vol.69, issue.12, pp.3071-3077, 1991.

J. D. Speed, G. Austrheim, A. J. Hester, and A. Mysterud, Experimental evidence for herbivore limitation of the treeline, Ecology, vol.91, issue.11, pp.3414-3420, 2010.

H. Spiecker, Growth dynamics in a changing environment-long-term observations, Plant and Soil, issue.1, pp.555-561, 1995.

P. H. Stones and J. H. Carlson, Atmospheric lapse rate remgimes and their parametrization, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol.36, pp.415-423, 1979.

D. Storms, P. Aubry, J. Hamann, S. Saïd, H. Fritz et al., Seasonal variation in diet composition and similarity of sympatric red deer Cervus elaphus and roe deer Capreolus capreolus, Wildlife Biology, vol.14, pp.237-250, 2008.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00428225

D. Storms, S. Said, H. Fritz, J. L. Hamann, C. Saint-andrieux et al., Influence of hurricane Lothar on red and roe deer winter diets in the Northern Vosges, France. Forest Ecology and Management, vol.237, issue.1-3, pp.164-169, 2006.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00184420

M. Szwed, I. Pi?skwar, Z. W. Kundzewicz, D. Graczyk, and A. Mezghani, Changes of snow cover in Poland, Acta Geophysica, vol.65, issue.1, pp.65-76, 2017.

J. L. Telleria and E. Virgos, Distribution of an increasing roe deer population in a fragmented Mediterranean landscape, Ecography, vol.20, issue.3, pp.247-252, 1997.

W. Thuiller, S. Lavorel, M. B. Araujo, M. T. Sykes, and I. C. Prentice, Climate change threats to plant diversity in Europe, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.102, issue.23, pp.8245-8250, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00274241

L. Tingstad, S. L. Olsen, K. Klanderud, V. Vandvik, and M. Ohlson, Temperature, precipitation and biotic interactions as determinants of tree seedling recruitment across the tree line ecotone, Oecologia, vol.179, issue.2, pp.599-608, 2015.

W. Tinner, D. Colombaroli, O. Heiri, P. D. Henne, M. Steinacher et al., The past ecology of Abies alba provides new perspectives on future responses of silver fir forests to global warming, Ecological Monographs, vol.83, issue.4, pp.419-439, 2013.

S. Wagner, C. Collet, P. Madsen, T. Nakashizuka, R. D. Nyland et al., Beech regeneration research: From ecological to silvicultural aspects, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.259, issue.11, pp.2172-2182, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01976235

J. L. Walck, S. N. Hidayati, K. W. Dixon, K. Thompson, and P. Poschlod, Climate change and plant regeneration from seed, Global Change Biology, vol.17, issue.6, pp.2145-2161, 2011.

A. I. Ward, Expanding ranges of wild and feral deer in Great Britain, Mammal Review, vol.35, issue.2, pp.165-173, 2005.

A. Wolf, M. V. Kozlov, and T. V. Callaghan, Impact of non-outbreak insect damage on vegetation in northern Europe will be greater than expected during a changing climate, Climatic Change, vol.87, issue.1-2, pp.91-106, 2008.

S. Zerbe and D. Kreyer, Influence of different forest conversion strategies on ground vegetation and tree regeneration in pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands: A case study in NE Germany, European Journal of Forest Research, vol.126, issue.2, pp.291-301, 2007.

!. !-2-;-lenoir, How do climate change and browsing affect seedlings density and regeneration height structure? We expect seedlings density to increase with the linear climatic trend (Hessl & Baker, but to decrease by intense and frequent droughts, 2005.

. Zang, We also expect a reduced seedling density by heavy browsing, especially for silver fir, 1996.

. Kauppi, 2005) 4. Is there any drought frequency threshold under which silver fir-Norway spruce-common beech mixed would collapse? If so, is it modified by browsing intensity? Because browsing weakens regeneration, we expect this threshold, if any, How do climate change and browsing affect mature stand structure (basal area, number of trees, 2006.

, There is a great uncertainty, inherent in models, about future climate, and future development of ungulate populations and thus of browsing pressure (Bugmann, 1997). Therefore, we used Samsara2 model to take an exploratory approach, considering contrasted climatic and browsing modalities

R. Allen and C. Allan, Mountain beech forest dynamics in the Kaweka Range and the influence of browsing animals, Science for Conservation, vol.44, pp.1-23, 1997.

S. K. Allen, V. Barros, I. Burton, D. L. Lendrum, O. D. Cardona et al., Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation, 2011.

R. Andersen, P. Duncan, and D. C. Linnell, The European Roe Deer : the Biology of Success, 1998.

G. Aussenac, Ecology and ecophysiology of circum-Mediterranean firs in the context of climate change, Annals of Forest Science, vol.59, issue.8, pp.823-832, 2002.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00881894

L. Balducci, A. Deslauriers, A. Giovannelli, M. Beaulieu, S. Delzon et al., How do drought and warming influence survival and wood traits of Picea mariana saplings, Journal of Experimental Botany, vol.66, issue.1, pp.377-389, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01195080

G. Battipaglia, M. Saurer, P. Cherubini, R. T. Siegwolf, and M. F. Cotrufo, Tree rings indicate different drought resistance of a native (Abies alba Mill.) and a nonnative (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) species co-occurring at a dry site in Southern Italy, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.257, issue.3, pp.820-828, 2009.

M. Bernard, V. Boulanger, J. Dupouey, L. Laurent, P. Montpied et al., Deer browsing promotes Norway spruce at the expense of silver fir in the forest regeneration phase, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.400, pp.269-277, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01595597

M. Bernard, X. Morin, S. Saïd, V. Boulanger, E. Granda et al., Are plant-ungulates interactions related to climate? Comparison of consumption indexes along elevation gradients across a latitudinal gradient of European sites

M. Bernard, S. Saïd, V. Boulanger, M. Jourdan, E. Defossez et al., ). Does forest regeneration benefit from stand mixture?

V. Boulanger, C. Baltzinger, S. Saïd, P. Ballon, J. Picard et al., Ranking temperate woody species along a gradient of browsing by deer, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.258, issue.7, pp.1397-1406, 2009.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inria-00412521

V. Boulanger, C. Baltzinger, S. Saïd, P. Ballon, J. Picard et al., Decreasing deer browsing pressure influenced understory vegetation dynamics over 30 years, Annals of Forest Science, vol.72, issue.3, pp.367-378, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01269042

N. Bréda and V. Badeau, Forest tree responses to extreme drought and some biotic events: Towards a selection according to hazard tolerance?, Comptes Rendus-Geoscience, vol.340, issue.9, pp.651-662, 2008.

H. Bugmann, Sensitivity of forests in the European Alps to future climatic change, Climate Research, vol.8, pp.35-44, 1997.

E. J. Burke and S. J. Brown, Evaluating uncertainties in the projection of future drought, Journal of Hydrometeorology, vol.9, issue.2, pp.292-299, 2008.

P. Burschel, H. El-kateb, and R. Mosandl, Experiments in mixed mountain forests in Bavaria, 1992.

M. J. Kelty and B. C. Larson, The Ecology and Silviculture of Mixed-species Forests, pp.183-215

M. Cailleret, M. Heurich, and H. Bugmann, Reduction in browsing intensity may not compensate climate change effects on tree species composition in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.328, pp.179-192, 2014.

D. M. Cairns and J. Moen, Herbivory influences tree lines, Journal of Ecology, vol.92, issue.6, pp.1019-1024, 2004.

C. D. Canham and L. Murphy, The demography of tree species response to climate: Seedling recruitment and survival, Ecosphere, vol.7, issue.8, pp.1-16, 2016.

R. F. Carden, C. M. Carlin, F. Marnell, D. Mcelholm, J. Hetherington et al., Distribution and range expansion of deer in Ireland, Mammal Review, vol.41, issue.4, pp.313-325, 2011.

M. Carrer, R. Motta, and P. Nola, Significant Mean and Extreme Climate Sensitivity of Norway Spruce and Silver Fir at Mid-Elevation Mesic Sites in the Alps, PLoS ONE, vol.7, issue.11, pp.1-9, 2012.

T. Cordonnier, B. Courbaud, F. Berger, and A. Franc, Permanence of resilience and protection efficiency in mountain Norway spruce forest stands: A simulation study, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.256, issue.3, pp.347-354, 2008.

S. D. Côté, T. P. Rooney, J. Tremblay, C. Dussault, and D. M. Waller, Ecological Impacts of Deer Overabundance, Evolution, and Systematics, vol.35, issue.1, pp.113-147, 2004.

B. Courbaud, F. De-coligny, and T. Cordonnier, Simulating radiation distribution in a heterogeneous Norway spruce forest on a slope, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, vol.116, issue.1-2, pp.1-18, 2003.

B. Courbaud, F. Goreaud, P. Dreyfus, and F. R. Bonnet, Evaluating thinning strategies using a tree distance dependent growth model: Some examples based on the CAPSIS software "uneven-aged spruce forests, module. Forest Ecology and Management, vol.145, issue.1-2, pp.15-28, 2001.

B. Courbaud, V. Lafond, G. Lagarrigues, G. Vieilledent, T. Cordonnier et al., Applying ecological model evaludation: Lessons learned with the forest dynamics model Samsara2, Ecological Modelling, vol.314, pp.1-14, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01269383

D. Jager, N. R. Drohan, P. J. Miranda, B. M. Sturtevant, B. R. Stout et al., Simulating ungulate herbivory across forest landscapes: A browsing extension for LANDIS-II, Ecological Modelling, vol.350, pp.11-29, 2017.

C. Desplanque, C. Rolland, and R. Michalet, Dendroecological comparison of silver fir (Abies alba) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) in an alpine valley in France, Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol.28, issue.5, pp.737-748, 1998.

J. Diaci, Regeneration dynamics in a Norway spruce plantation on a silver fir-beech forest site in the Slovenian Alps, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.161, issue.1-3, pp.27-38, 2002.

J. Diaci, T. Adamic, and A. Rozman, Gap recruitment and partitioning in an old-growth beech forest of the Dinaric Mountains: Influences of light regime, herb competition and browsing, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.285, pp.20-28, 2012.

M. Didion, A. D. Kupferschmid, and H. Bugmann, Long-term effects of ungulate browsing on forest composition and structure, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.258, pp.44-55, 2009.

A. Dohrenbusch, S. Jaehnea, M. Bredemeierb, and N. Lamersdorfc, Growth and fructification of a Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst) forest ecosystem under changed nutrient and water input, Annals of Forest Science, vol.59, pp.359-368, 2002.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00881920

S. Dufour-kowalski, B. Courbaud, P. Dreyfus, C. Meredieu, and F. De-coligny, Capsis: an open software framework and community for forest growth modelling, Annals of Forest Science, vol.69, pp.221-233, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00930711

C. Dulamsuren, M. Hauck, G. Kopp, M. Ruff, and C. Leuschner, European beech responds to climate change with growth decline at lower, and growth increase at higher elevations in the center of its distribution range, Trees-Structure and Function, vol.31, issue.2, pp.673-686, 2017.

D. Silva, P. Rezende-mazzella, M. Legay, E. Corcket, and J. Dupouey, Does natural regeneration determine the limit of European beech distribution under climatic stress? Forest Ecology and Management, vol.266, pp.263-272, 2012.

D. R. Easterling, J. L. Evans, P. Y. Groisman, T. R. Karl, K. E. Kunkel et al., Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events: A brief review, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, vol.81, issue.3, pp.417-425, 2000.

C. Erefur, U. Bergsten, and M. Chantal, Establishment of direct seeded seedlings of Norway spruce and Scots pine: Effects of stand conditions, orientation and distance with respect to shelter tree, and fertilisation, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.255, issue.3-4, pp.1186-1195, 2008.

L. Feyen and R. Dankers, Impact of global warming on streamflow drought in Europe, Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres, vol.114, issue.17, pp.1-17, 2009.

A. Ficko, J. Roessiger, and A. Bon?ina, Can the use of continuous cover forestry alone maintain silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) in central European mountain forests?, Forestry, vol.89, issue.4, pp.412-421, 2016.

N. A. Fisichelli, L. E. Frelich, and P. B. Reich, Sapling growth responses to warmer temperatures "cooled" by browse pressure, Global Change Biology, vol.18, issue.11, pp.3455-3463, 2012.

M. N. Fotelli, A. Geßler, A. D. Peuke, and H. Rennenberg, Drought affects the competitive interactions between Fagus sylvatica seedlings and an early successional species, Rubus fruticosus: Responses of growth, water status and ?13C composition, New Phytologist, vol.151, issue.2, pp.427-435, 2001.

J. Gaillard, A. J. Mark-hewison, F. Klein, F. Plard, M. Douhard et al., How does climate change influence demographic processes of widespread species? Lessons from the comparative analysis of contrasted populations of roe deer, Ecology Letters, vol.16, pp.48-57, 2013.

L. M. Ganio and K. J. Puettmann, Designing long-term, large-scale forestry experiments with research objectives at multiple scales, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, vol.26, pp.1-18, 2008.

C. Giannakopoulos, L. Sager, P. Bindi, M. Moriondo, M. Kostopoulou et al., Climatic changes and associated impacts in the Mediterranean resulting from a 2 °C global warming, Global and Planetary Change, vol.68, issue.3, pp.209-224, 2009.

R. M. Gill, A review of damage by mammals in North temperate forests: Deer, Forestry, vol.65, issue.2, pp.145-169, 1992.

N. Gomez, Quel avenir pour le sapin et l'épicéa ? Synthèse bibliographique sur l'autécologie et la vulnérabilité comparée du sapin et de l'épicéa dans le cadre des changements climatiques. Rendez-Vous Techniques de l'ONF, pp.3-6, 2012.

F. Goreaud, F. De-coligny, B. Courbaud, J. Dhôte, P. Dreyfus et al., La modélisation : un outil pour la gestion et l'aménagement en forêt. VertigO-La Revue En Sciences de l'environnement, vol.6, pp.70-81, 2005.

A. Herrero, P. Almaraz, R. Zamora, J. Castro, and J. A. Hódar, From the individual to the landscape and back: Time-varying effects of climate and herbivory on tree sapling growth at distribution limits, Journal of Ecology, vol.104, issue.2, pp.430-442, 2016.

A. Herrero, R. Zamora, J. Castro, and J. A. Hódar, Limits of pine forest distribution at the treeline: Herbivory matters, Plant Ecology, vol.213, issue.3, pp.459-469, 2012.

A. E. Hessl and W. L. Baker, Spruce and Fir Regeneration and Climate in the Forest-Tundra Ecotone of Regeneration Spruce National Mountain Colorado, vol.29, pp.173-183, 2010.

P. Heuzé, A. Schnitzler, and F. Klein, Is browsing the major factor of silver fir decline in the Vosges Mountains of France? Forest Ecology and Management, vol.217, pp.219-228, 2005.

Y. Hirabayashi, S. Kanae, S. Emori, T. Oki, and M. Kimoto, Global projections of changing risks of floods and droughts in a changing climate, Hydrological Sciences Journal, vol.53, issue.4, pp.754-772, 2008.

I. , Changements climatiques 2013, les éléments scientifiques, 2013.

H. Jactel and E. G. Brockerhoff, Tree diversity reduces herbivory by forest insects, Ecology Letters, vol.10, issue.9, pp.835-848, 2007.

A. S. Jump, J. M. Hunt, and J. Peñuelas, Rapid climate change-related growth decline at the southern range edge of Fagus sylvatica, Global Change Biology, vol.12, issue.11, pp.2163-2174, 2006.

A. S. Jump, J. M. Hunt, and J. Peñuelas, Climate relationships of growth and establishment across the atitudinal range of Fagus sylvatica in the Montseny Mounyains, northeast Spain, vol.14, pp.507-518, 2007.

P. E. Kauppi, K. Mielikainen, K. Kuusela, P. E. Kauppi, K. Mielikainen et al., Biomass and Carbon Budget of European Forests, vol.256, pp.70-74, 1971.

M. Klop?i?, K. Jerina, and A. Boncina, Long-term changes of structure and tree species composition in Dinaric uneven-aged forests: Are red deer an important factor?, European Journal of Forest Research, vol.129, issue.3, pp.277-288, 2010.

D. P. Kuijper, J. P. Cromsigt, M. Churski, B. Adam, B. Jedrzejewska et al., Do ungulates preferentially feed in forest gaps in European temperate forest? Forest Ecology and Management, vol.258, pp.1528-1535, 2009.

Y. Kullberg and R. Bergström, Winter browsing by large herbivores on planted deciduous seedlings in southern Sweden, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, vol.16, issue.4, pp.371-378, 2001.

V. Lafond, G. Lagarrigues, T. Cordonnier, and B. Courbaud, Uneven-aged management options to promote forest resilience for climate change adaptation: effects of group selection and harvesting intensity, Annals of Forest Science, vol.71, pp.173-186, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01098407

G. Lagarrigues, Variabilité démographique et adaptation de la gestion aux changements climatiques en forêt de montagne : calibration par Calcul Bayésien Approché et projection avec le modèle, 2016.

F. Lebourgeois, Réponse au climat du sapin (Abies alba Mill.) et de l'épicéa (Picea abies (L.) Karts.) dans le réseau RENECOFOR, Rev. For. Fr, vol.58, pp.419-432, 2006.

F. Lebourgeois, N. Bréda, E. Ulrich, and A. Granier, Climate-tree-growth relationships of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in the French Permanent Plot Network (RENECOFOR), Trees-Structure and Function, vol.19, issue.4, pp.385-401, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01831367

M. Legay, T. Cordonnier, and J. Dhôte, Des forêts mélangées pour composer avec les changements climatiques, Revue Forestière Française, vol.60, issue.2, pp.181-190, 2008.

J. Lenoir, J. Gégout, J. Pierrat, J. Bontemps, and J. Dhôte, Differences between tree species seedling and adult altitudinal distribution in mountain forests during the recent warm period, Ecography, vol.32, issue.5, pp.765-777, 1986.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01195022

M. Lindner, Developing adaptive forest management strategies to cope with climate change, Tree Physiology, vol.20, issue.5_6, pp.299-307, 2000.

M. Lindner, M. Maroschek, S. Netherer, A. Kremer, A. Barbati et al., Climate change impacts, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability of European forest ecosystems, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.259, issue.4, pp.698-709, 2010.

R. L. Little and D. L. Peterson, Regeneration of sulbalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) following fire: effects of climate and other factors, Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol.24, issue.5, pp.934-944, 1994.

B. Lloyd-hughes and M. A. Saunders, A drought climatology for Europe, International Journal of Climatology, vol.22, issue.13, pp.1571-1592, 2002.

M. Loreau, S. Naeem, P. Inchausti, J. Bengtsson, J. P. Grime et al., Ecology: Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: Current knowledge and future challenges, Science, vol.294, issue.5543, pp.804-808, 2001.

P. Madsen and J. B. Larsen, Natural regeneration of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) with respect to canopy density, soil moisture and soil carbon content, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.97, pp.95-105, 1997.

V. Masson-delmotte, G. Raffalli-delerce, P. A. Danis, P. Yiou, M. Stievenard et al., Changes in European precipitation seasonality and in drought frequencies revealed by a four-century-long tree-ring isotopic record from, Climate Dynamics, vol.24, issue.1, pp.57-69, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00067886

S. Mattioli, P. G. Meneguz, A. Brugnoli, and S. Nicoloso, Red Deer in Italy: Recent Changes in Range and Numbers, Hystrix, vol.12, issue.1, pp.27-35, 2001.

J. Metz, D. Seidel, P. Schall, D. Scheffer, E. D. Schulze et al., Crown modeling by terrestrial laser scanning as an approach to assess the effect of aboveground intra-and interspecific competition on tree growth, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.310, pp.275-288, 2013.

J. M. Milner, C. Bonenfant, A. Mysterud, J. Gaillard, S. Csányi et al., Temporal and spatial development of red deer harvesting in Europe: Biological and cultural factors, Journal of Applied, 2006.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00428007

J. L. Telleria and E. Virgos, Distribution of an increasing roe deer population in a fragmented Mediterranean landscape, Ecography, vol.20, issue.3, pp.247-252, 1997.

W. Thuiller, S. Lavorel, M. B. Araujo, M. T. Sykes, and I. C. Prentice, Climate change threats to plant diversity in Europe, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.102, issue.23, pp.8245-8250, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00274241

L. Tingstad, S. L. Olsen, K. Klanderud, V. Vandvik, and M. Ohlson, Temperature, precipitation and biotic interactions as determinants of tree seedling recruitment across the tree line ecotone, Oecologia, vol.179, issue.2, pp.599-608, 2015.

W. Tinner, D. Colombaroli, O. Heiri, P. D. Henne, M. Steinacher et al., The past ecology of Abies alba provides new perspectives on future responses of silver fir forests to global warming, Ecological Monographs, vol.83, issue.4, pp.419-439, 2013.

P. J. Van-der-meer, I. T. Jorritsma, and K. Kramer, Assessing climate change effects on long-term forest development: Adjusting growth, phenology, and seed production in a gap model, Forest Ecology and Management, vol.162, issue.1, pp.39-52, 2002.

G. Vieilledent, B. Courbaud, G. Kunstler, J. Dhôte, and J. S. Clark, Individual variability in tree allometry determines light resource allocation in forest ecosystems: A hierarchical Bayesian approach, Oecologia, vol.163, issue.3, pp.759-773, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01195099

J. L. Walck, S. N. Hidayati, K. W. Dixon, K. Thompson, and P. Poschlod, Climate change and plant regeneration from seed, Global Change Biology, vol.17, issue.6, pp.2145-2161, 2011.

A. I. Ward, Expanding ranges of wild and feral deer in Great Britain, Mammal Review, vol.35, issue.2, pp.165-173, 2005.

C. Zang, C. Hartl-meier, C. Dittmar, A. Rothe, and A. Menzel, Patterns of drought tolerance in major European temperate forest trees: Climatic drivers and levels of variability, Global Change Biology, vol.20, issue.12, pp.3767-3779, 2014.

S. Zerbe and D. Kreyer, Influence of different forest conversion strategies on ground vegetation and tree regeneration in pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands: A case study in NE Germany, European Journal of Forest Research, vol.126, issue.2, pp.291-301, 2007.

. Malgré!leur!pertinence and . Ice!ne!sont!à!ce!jour!utilisés!qu,

, équilibre!forêt-gibier,!d'autant!plus!en!contexte!de!climat!changeant

. Gibier!-en!-allemagne, !. Pologne, and . Suède, ! une! donnée! dont! on! sait! qu'elle! est! peu! fiable! et! peu! comparable! entre! massifs! forestiers.! En! France,! l'accès! aux! tableaux! de! chasse! est! aisé! mais! l'information!qu'ils!fournissent!ne!convient!pas.!Trouver!une!métrique,!d'une!part,!puis!la!diffuser! suffisamment!largement!

, Une!fois!la!métrique!définie!et!diffusée,!il!convient!de!s'accorder!sur!une!valeur!à!atteindre

. Cette!autre!étape,!délicate!également,!nécessite!une!poursuite!de!l-;-nugent!, effort!de!recherche.!Le!but!peut! être! celui! d'un! «!chargement! maximal!»! permettant! une! régénération! (ou! MSY! pour! Maximum Sustainable Yield)!, 2011.

, ! Quels outils pour y parvenir ?

, ! et!que!c'est!à!ces!niveaux!que!se!situe!le!principal!levier!d'action!du!gestionnaire.!De!la! même! manière,!en!matière!de!réaction!face!au!changement!climatique!, Nous!avons!montré!que!les!niveaux!intermédiaires!de!pression!semblent!les!plus!critiques

. En!-effet,!-si!-remplacer!-une!-essence!-inadaptée!-par!-une!-autre!-mieux!-adaptée!-semble!-une-;-legay!, ! option!tout!à!fait!plausible!dans!une!stratégie!d'adaptation!au!changement!climatique,!réorienter! totalement!la!composition!en!essences!de!peuplements!serait!inapproprié,!dans!la!mesure!où!les! essences!présentent!des!réponses!différentes!comme!nous!l'avons!évoqué!dans!ce!travail!, !Cependant, 2007.

!. De!la!forte!pression!de!sélection!qu'il!représente and . Donc!de!la-;-temperli!, potentielle!sous-estimation!du!rôle! de! l'adaptation! des! végétaux! aux! changement! climatique! (Jump! &! Peñuelas,! 2005).! Ainsi,! le! recours! au! mélange! avec! éventuellement! l'introduction! d'essences! thermophiles! semble! la! stratégie!la!moins!risquée!, 2012.

, les! interactions! avec! les! autres! compartiments! tels! que! le! sol! et! la! faune! du! sol,! les! autres! communautés! d'herbivores! et! insectes!:! une! alternative! serait! l'introduction! d'individus! provenant!de!conditions!plus!xériques,!mais!pour!la!même!espèce!ou!le!même!genre!

. De!-même, ! pour! ce! qui! concerne! la! pression! d'abroutissement,! se! fixer! pour! but! une! suppression!totale!des!cervidés!paraîtrait!totalement!inapproprié,!tant!d'un!point!de!vue!social! qu'écologique.!Paysages!boisés!et!pâturages!sont!en!effet!le!fruit!d

!. Kirby and . Kirby!, !Si!réduire!le!nombre!d'herbivores!permet!d'améliorer!la!régénération,!les!exclure! totalement!entraînerait!une!perte!de!biodiversité!à!la!clef, !Il!vaut!donc!mieux! maintenir!de!faibles!densités!que!les!éradiquer!totalement!, 1990.

!. La, !problème!des!situations!de!déséquilibre!»!forêt-gibier!semble!donc!devoir!être!

, ! adaptée! à! chaque! situation,! et! donc! requérir! une! démarche! de! gestion! adaptative

!. Cordonnier and !. Gosselin, ! la! définissent! comme! une! approche! de! la! gestion! des! systèmes! naturels!s'appuyant!sur!l'apprentissage!issu!du!bon!sens, 2013.

. Pour!-Être!-efficace-;-beguin!, !2016)!:!!-L'intégration! des! parties! prenantes! et! de! l'aspect! social,! par! une! sensibilisation! au! fonctionnement! d'un! écosystème.! Cela! suppose! des! travaux! de! recherche! à! même! de! susciter! une! réflexion! chez! tous! les! acteurs! pour! définir! des! cibles! accessibles, ! une! telle! gestion! des! forêts! à! surabondance! de! cervidés!soulève! trois! défis!

, ! en! associant! les! actions! menées! sur! la! végétation! à! celles! menées! sur! les! cervidés!-! par! exemple! améliorer! l'accessibilité! des! chasseurs!aux!zones!de!surabondance!et!à!faible!visibilité,!et!lorsque!ces!conditions!sont! remplies,! attendre! que! la! densité! de! cervidés! soit! suffisamment! faible! pour! lancer! des! travaux!sur!la!régénération.!Ils!insistent!sur!l'importance!d'un!effort!de!chasse!ciblé!sur! les!zones!de!surabondance!à!proximité!de!la!régénération, L'intégration! et! la! hiérarchisation! des! actions

. De!-plus!-(kuijper!, ! 2009) suggèrent! une! sylviculture! qui! tienne! compte! du! comportement!des!ongulés!(=!se!nourrir!dans!les!trouées!préférentiellement)!plutôt!que! de!simplement!chercher!à!contrôler!les!populations.!-Enfin!l'acquisition!de!données!pour!améliorer!cette!gestion!adaptative,!en!poursuivant!les! études! à! base! d'enclos-exclos,! et! en! cherchant! les! compromis! «!densité! de! cervidés!-! régénération!»! correspondant! à! divers! contextes! écologiques,! via! notamment! des! expérimentations!de!densités!contrôlées

. Pourrait!être!un!moyen!de!tendre, !vers!un!idéal!proche!de!l'éthique!naturaliste!du!stoïcisme,!qui! invite!les!hommes!à!vivre!en!conformité!avec!la!nature,!c'est-à-dire!avec!leur!propre!nature

!. S. Aitken, !. S. Yeaman, !. J. Holliday, !. T. Wang, and !. S. Curtis-mclane, !Adaptation,!migration! or!extirpation:!climate!change!outcomes!for!tree!populations, !Evolutionary!Applications,!, vol.1, issue.1, pp.95-111, 2008.

!. S. Aldous and !. E. , !A!Deer!Browse!Survey!Method, !Journal!of!Mammalogy,!, vol.25, issue.2, pp.130-136, 1944.

!. S. Allen, !. V. Barros, !. I. Burton, !. D. Lendrum, !. O. Cardona et al., , 2011.

!. R. Andersen, !. P. Duncan, and !. D. Linnell, The!European!Roe!Deer#:!the!Biology!of!Success,! (d, 1998.

!. K. Andreassen, !. S. Solberg, !. O. Tveito, and !. S. Lystad, !Regional!differences!in!climatic! responses! of! Norway! spruce! (Picea! abies! L.! Karst)! growth! in! Norway, ! Forest! Ecology! and! Management,!, vol.222, issue.1-3, pp.211-221, 2006.

!. J. Andrew, !. J. Davis, and . !-h.!-l.!-b.!-s.!-l.!-s.!-j.!, ! Individualistic! species! responses! invalidate!simple! physiological!models!of!community!dynamics!under!global!environmental!change, !Journal!of! Animal!Ecology,!, vol.67, issue.4, pp.600-612, 1998.

!. M. Araújo and !. M. Luoto, ! The! importance! of! biotic! interactions! for! modelling! species! distributions!under!climate!change, !Global!Ecology!and!Biogeography, vol.16, issue.6, pp.743-753, 2007.

!. J. Aronson, !. S. Dhillion, and !. E. Le!floc'h, !On!the!need!to!select!an!ecosystem!of!reference! however!imperfect:!a!reply!to!Pickett!and!Parker, !Restoration!Ecology,!, vol.3, issue.1, pp.1-3, 1995.

!. C. Augspurger, ! Early! spring! leaf! out! enhances! growth! and! survival! of! saplings! in! a! temperate!deciduous!forest, !Oecologia,!, vol.156, issue.2, pp.281-286, 2008.

!. D. Augustine and !. S. Mcnaughton, !Ungulate!effects!on!the!functional!composition!of!plant! communities:!herbivore!selectivity!and!plant!tolerance, !The!Journal!of!Wildlife!Management,!, vol.62, issue.4, pp.1165-1183, 1998.

!. L. Augusto, !. P. Bonnaud, and !. J. Ranger, !Impact!of!tree!species!on!forest!soil!acidification, ! Forest!Ecology!and!Management,!, vol.105, issue.1-3, pp.67-78, 1998.

!. G. Aussenac, !Ecology!and!ecophysiology!of!circum-Mediterranean!firs!in!the!context!of! climate!change, !Annals!of!Forest!Science,!, vol.59, issue.8, pp.823-832, 2002.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00881894

!. G. Austrheim, !. E. Solberg, and !. A. Mysterud, !Spatio-temporal!variation!in!large!herbivore! pressure!in!Norway!during!1949-1999:!has!decreased!grazing!by!livestock!been!countered!by! increased!browsing!by!cervids?, vol.17, pp.286-298, 2011.

!. M. Ayres, !Plant!defense,!herbivory,!and!climate!change.!Biotic!Interactions!and!Global! Change, 1993.

!. V. Badeau, !. Dupouey, !. C. Cluzeau, !. J. Drapier, !. Le et al., ! Climate! change! and! the! biogeography! of! French! tree! species:! first! results! and! perspectives, ! Forests,!Carbon!cycle!and!climate!change!, 2010.

!. R. Barbehenn and !. C. Peter!-constabel, ! Tannins! in! plant-herbivore! interactions, Phytochemistry,!, vol.72, issue.13, pp.1551-1565, 2011.

!. R. Barone, ! 1#:! Appareil! digestif! et! appareil! respiratoire.! In! Anatomie! comparée! des! mammifères!domestique, 1997.

!. K. Barton and !. E. , ! Ontogenetic! patterns! in! the! mechanisms! of! tolerance! to! herbivory! in! Plantago, !Annals!of!Botany,!, vol.112, issue.4, 2013.

!. G. Battipaglia, !. M. Saurer, !. P. Cherubini, !. R. Siegwolf, and !. M. Cotrufo, ! Tree! rings! indicate!different!drought!resistance!of!a!native!(Abies!alba!Mill.)!and!a!nonnative!(Picea!abies! (L.)! Karst.)! species! co-occurring! at! a! dry! site! in! Southern! Italy, ! Forest! Ecology! and! Management,!, vol.257, issue.3, pp.820-828, 2009.

!. D. Bazely, !. J. Myers, and !. K. Burke, !The!response!of!numbers!of!bramble!prickles!to! herbivory!and!depressed!resource!availability, !, vol.61, issue.3, pp.327-336, 1991.

!. M. Becker, ! Bilan! de! santé! actuel! et! rétrospectif! du! sapin! (Abies! alba! Mill.)! dans! les! Vosges.Etude!écologique!et!dendrochronologique, !Annals!of!Forest!Science,!, vol.44, issue.4, pp.379-472, 1987.

!. J. Beguin, !. J. Tremblay, !. N. Thiffault, !. D. Pothier, and !. S. Côté, ! Management! of! forest! regeneration! in! boreal! and! temperate! deer!-! forest! systems#:! challenges! ,! guidelines! ,! and! research!gaps, pp.1-16, 2016.

!. J. Bengtsson, !. S. Nilsson, !. A. Franc, and !. P. Menozzi, !Biodiversity,!disturbances,!ecosystem! function!and!management!of!european!forests.!Forest!Ecology!and!Management, !, vol.132, issue.1, pp.39-50, 2000.

!. U. Berger, !. C. Piou, !. K. Schiffers, and !. V. Grimm, ! Competition! among! plants:! Concepts,! individual-based! modelling! approaches,! and! a! proposal! for! a! future! research! strategy.! Perspectives!in!Plant!Ecology, !Evolution!and!Systematics,!, vol.9, pp.121-135, 2008.

!. J. Bergquist, !. M. Löf, and !. G. Örlander, !Effects!of!roe!deer!browsing!and!site!preparation!on! performance! of! planted! broadleaved! and! conifer! seedlings! when! using! temporary! fences, ! Scandinavian!Journal!of!Forest!Research,!, vol.24, pp.308-317, 2009.

!. J. Bergquist and !. G. Örlander, !Browsing!damage!by!roe!deer!on!Norway!spruce!seedlings! planted!on!clearcuts!of!different!ages:!1.!Effect!of!slash!removal,!vegetation!development,!and! roe!deer!density, !Forest!Ecology!and!Management,!, vol.105, issue.1-3, pp.283-293, 1998.

!. M. Bertness and !. R. Callaway, !Positive!interactions!in!communities.!Trends!in!Ecology!and! Evolution, vol.9, pp.187-191, 1994.

!. R. Bertrand, !. J. Lenoir, !. C. Piedallu, !. G. Riofrio-dillon, !. P. Ruffray et al., !Changes!in!plant!community!composition! lag!behind!climate!warming!in!lowland!forests.!Nature, pp.517-537, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01001166

!. J. Bodin, !. V. Badeau, !. E. Bruno, !. C. Cluzeau, !. Moisselin et al., ! Shifts!of!forest!species!along!an!elevational!gradient!in!Southeast!France:!Climate!change!or! stand!maturation?, Journal!of!Vegetation!Science,!, vol.24, issue.2, pp.269-283, 2013.

!. J. Bolliger, !. F. Kienast, !. N. Zimmermann, and !. E. , ! Risks! of! global! warming! on! montane! and! subalpine!forests!in!Switzerland#?!a!modeling!study, !Regional!Environmental!Change,!, vol.1, issue.3-4, pp.99-111, 2000.

!. A. Bolte, !. L. Hilbrig, !. B. Grundmann, !. F. Kampf, !. J. Brunet et al., ! Climate! change! impacts!on!stand!structure!and!competitive!interactions!in!a!southern!Swedish!spruce-beech! forest, European!Journal!of!Forest!Research,!, vol.129, issue.3, pp.261-276, 2010.

!. V. Boulanger, !. C. Baltzinger, !. S. Saïd, !. P. Ballon, !. Picard et al., ! Ranking! temperate! woody! species! along! a! gradient! of! browsing! by! deer, ! Forest! Ecology! and! Management, vol.258, issue.7, pp.1397-1406, 2009.

!. V. Boulanger, !. J. Dupouey, !. F. Archaux, !. V. Badeau, !. C. Baltzinger et al., ! Ungulates!increase!forest!plant!species!richness!to!the!benefit!of!non-forest!specialists, !Global! Change!Biology,!, vol.24, issue.2, pp.485-495, 2018.

!. B. Boutefeu, !L'amenagement!forestier!en!France#:!à!la!recherche!d'une!gestion!durable!à! travers!l'Histoire.!Vertigo!-!La!Revue!Éléctronique!En!Sciences!de!l'environnement, vol.6, pp.1-8, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00174852

!. N. Bréda and !. V. Badeau, !Forest!tree!responses!to!extreme!drought!and!some!biotic!events:! Towards!a!selection!according!to!hazard!tolerance?!Comptes!Rendus!-!Geoscience, !, vol.340, issue.9, pp.651-662, 2008.

!. J. Bronstein, !The!exploitation!of!mutualisms, !Ecology!Letters,!, vol.4, issue.3, pp.277-287, 2001.

!. J. Bryant, !. F. Chapin, !. D. Klein, !. J. Bryant, !. F. Chapin et al., ! Carbon/Nutrient!Balance!of!Boreal!Plants!in!Relation!to!Vertebrate!Herbivory, !Oikos,!, vol.40, issue.3, pp.357-368, 1983.

!. E. Burke and !. S. Brown, !Evaluating!uncertainties!in!the!projection!of!future!drought, ! Journal!of!Hydrometeorology, vol.9, issue.2, pp.292-299, 2008.

!. O. Burney and !. D. Jacobs, !Terpene!production!and!growth!of!three!Pacific!Northwest! conifers!in!response!to!simulated!browse!and!nutrient!availability, 2012.

!. O. Bykova, !. I. Chuine, !. X. Morin, and !. S. Higgins, ! Temperature! dependence! of! the! reproduction!niche!and!its!relevance!for!plant!species!distributions, !Journal!of!Biogeography, vol.39, issue.12, pp.2191-2200, 2012.

!. T. Caignard, !. A. Kremer, !. C. Firmat, !. M. Nicolas, !. S. Venner et al., !Increasing!spring! temperatures!favor!oak!seed!production!in!temperate!areas, !Scientific!Reports,!, vol.7, issue.1, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01595592

!. D. Cairns and !. J. Moen, !Herbivory!influences!tree!lines, !Journal!of!Ecology,!, vol.92, issue.6, pp.1019-1024, 2004.

!. R. Callaway, !Positive!interactions!among!plants, !Botanical!Review,!, vol.61, issue.4, pp.306-349, 1995.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00295042

!. C. Canham and !. L. Murphy, !The!demography!of!tree!species!response!to!climate:!Seedling! recruitment!and!survival, !Ecosphere,!, vol.7, issue.8, pp.1-16, 2016.

!. D. Carmona, !. M. Lajeunesse, and !. M. Johnson, ! Plant!traits!that!predict!resistance!to! herbivores, !Functional!Ecology,!, vol.25, issue.2, pp.358-367, 2011.

!. C. Casabon, !. D. Pothier, !. !-;-!forest!ecology, and !. Management, ! Browsing! of! tree! regeneration! by! white-tailed! deer! in! large! clearcuts!on, 2007.

!. V. Cash, !. T. Fulbright, and !. E. , ! Nutrient! enrichment! ,! tannins! ,! and! thorns:! effects! on! browsing!of!shrub!seedlings, !Journal!of!Wil,!, vol.69, issue.2, pp.782-793, 2005.

!. B. Castagneyrol, !. D. Bonal, !. M. Damien, !. H. Jactel, !. C. Meredieu et al., ! Bottom-up!and!top-down!effects!of!tree!species!diversity!on!leaf!insect!herbivory, !Ecology!and! Evolution,!, vol.7, issue.10, pp.3520-3531, 2017.

!. G. Caudullo, !. W. Tinner, !. D. Rigo, and . De, !Picea!omorika!in!Europe#:!distribution!,!habitat!,! usage!and!threats, 2016.

!. A. Charlez, , 2012.

!. M. Charru, !. I. Seynave, !. F. Morneau, and !. Bontemps, ! Recent! changes! in! forest! productivity:!An!analysis!of!national!forest!inventory!data!for!common!beech!(Fagus!sylvatica! L.)!in!north-eastern!France, !Forest!Ecology!and!Management,!, vol.260, issue.5, pp.864-874, 2010.

!. S. Chauchard, !. F. Beilhe, !. N. Denis, and !. C. Carcaillet, !An!increase!in!the!upper!tree-limit!of! silver! fir! (Abies! alba! Mill.)! in! the! Alps! since! the! mid-20th! century:! A! land-use! change! phenomenon, !Forest!Ecology!and!Management,!, vol.259, issue.8, pp.1406-1415, 2010.

!. A. Cheaib, !. V. Badeau, !. J. Boe, !. I. Chuine, !. C. Delire et al., !Climate!change!impacts!on!tree!ranges:! Model!intercomparison!facilitates!understanding!and!quantification!of!uncertainty, !Ecology! Letters,!, vol.15, issue.6, pp.533-544, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01268337

!. A. Chiarucci, !. M. Ara??jo, !. G. Decocq, !. C. Beierkuhnlein, and !. J. !&!fern??ndez-palacios, !The! concept! of! potential! natural! vegetation:! An! epitaph?, Journal! of! Vegetation! Science,!, vol.21, issue.6, pp.1172-1178, 2010.

!. S. Chollet, !. S. Padié, !. S. Stockton, !. S. Allombert, !. A. Gaston et al., !Positive!plant! and! bird! diversity! response! to! experimental! deer! population! reduction! after! decades! of! uncontrolled!browsing, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01308806

!. S. Chollet, !. S. Padié, !. S. Stockton, !. S. Allombert, !. A. Gaston et al., !Positive!plant! and! bird! diversity! response! to! experimental! deer! population! reduction! after! decades! of! uncontrolled!browsing.!Diversity!and!Distributions, !, vol.22, issue.3, pp.274-287, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01308806

!. P. Coley, !. J. Bryant, !. F. Chaplin, and !. S. , ! Resource! availability! and! plant! antiherbivore! defence, !Science,!, vol.230, issue.4728, pp.895-899, 1985.

!. C. Collet and !. C. Chenost, ! Using! competition! and! light! estimates! to! predict! diameter! and! height! growth! of! naturally! regenerated! beech! seedlings! growing! under! changing! canopy! conditions, !Forestry,!, vol.79, issue.5, pp.489-502, 2006.

!. D. Coomes, !. R. Allen, !. D. Forsyth, and !. W. Lee, !Factors!preventing!the!recovery!of! New!Zealand!forests!following!control!of!invasive!deer, !Conservation!Biology, vol.17, issue.2, pp.450-459, 2003.

!. G. Cooper, !Must!there!be!a!balance!of!nature?!Biology!and!Philosophy, !, vol.16, issue.4, pp.481-506, 2001.

!. T. Cordonnier and !. F. Gosselin, ! La! Gestion! Adaptative! Peut-Elle! Nous! Aider! Dans! L! '! Adaptation!Des!Forêts!Au!Changement!Climatique#?,!1-2.!, 2013.

!. J. Cornelissen, !. S. Lavorel, !. E. Garnier, !. S. Diaz, !. N. Buchmann et al., ! A! handbook! of! protocols! for! standardised! and! easy! measurement! of! plant! functional! traits! worldwide, !Australian!Journal!of!Botany,!, vol.51, issue.4, pp.335-380, 2003.

!. S. Côté, !. T. Rooney, !. Tremblay, !. C. Dussault, !. D. Waller et al., !Ecological!Impacts!of! Deer!Overabundance.!Annual!Review!of!Ecology,!Evolution, !, vol.35, issue.1, pp.113-147, 2004.

!. B. Courbaud, !. G. Kunstler, !. X. Morin, and !. T. Cordonnier, ! Quel! futur! pour! les! services! écosystémiques! de! la! forêt! alpine! dans! un! contexte! de! changement! climatique#?! Revue! de! Géographie!Alpine, !, vol.98, issue.4, 2010.

!. K. Cuddington, !The!"balance!of!nature"!metaphor!and!equilibrium!in!population!ecology, ! Biology!and!Philosophy,!, vol.16, issue.4, pp.463-479, 2001.

!. H. Dalgleish, !. D. Koons, and !. P. Adler, !Can!life-history!traits!predict!the!response!of! forb!populations!to!changes!in!climate!variability?, Journal!of!Ecology,!, vol.98, issue.1, pp.209-217, 2010.

!. A. Albrecht, !. A. Bauhus, and !. J. , ! Structural! diversity! promotes! productivity! of! mixed,!uneven-aged!forests!in!southwestern!Germany, !Oecologia,!, vol.182, issue.2, pp.319-333, 2016.

!. H. Davi, !. M. Cailleret, !. G. Restoux, !. A. Amm, !. C. Pichot et al., !Disentangling!the!factors! driving!tree!reproduction, !Ecosphere,!, vol.7, issue.9, pp.1-16, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01372133

!. A. Davis, !. L. Jenkinson, !. J. Lawton, !. B. Shorrocks, and !. S. Wood, !Making!mistakes!when! predicting!shifts!in!species!range!in!response!to!global!warming.!Nature, !, vol.391, issue.6669, pp.783-786, 1998.

!. E. Defossez, !. B. Courbaud, !. O. Lasbouygues, !. K. Schiffers, and !. G. Kunstler, !Are!variations!of! direct! and! indirect! plant! interactions! along! a! climatic! gradient! dependent! on! species'! strategies?!An!experiment!on!tree!seedlings, !Oikos,!, vol.125, issue.5, pp.708-717, 2016.

!. E. Defossez, !. B. Courbaud, !. B. Marcais, !. W. Thuiller, !. E. Granda et al., ! Do! interactions!between!plant!and!soil!biota!change!with!elevation?!A!study!on!Fagus!sylvatica, ! Biology!Letters,!, vol.7, issue.5, pp.699-701, 2011.

!. N. Derrière, !. S. Wurpillot, and !. C. Vidal, ! Un!siècle!d'expansion!des!forêts!françaises#:!de!la! statistique!Daubrée!à!l'Inventaire!Forestier!de!l, vol.8, 2013.

!. C. Desplanque, !. C. Rolland, and !. R. Michalet, !Dendroecological!comparison!of!silver!fir!(Abies! alba)!and!Norway!spruce!(Picea!abies)!in!an!alpine!valley!in!France, !Canadian!Journal!of!Forest! Research,!, vol.28, issue.5, pp.737-748, 1998.

!. J. Diaci, !Regeneration!dynamics!in!a!Norway!spruce!plantation!on!a!silver!fir-beech!forest! site!in!the!Slovenian!Alps, !Forest!Ecology!and!Management,!, vol.161, issue.1-3, pp.27-38, 2002.

!. J. Diaci, !. T. Adamic, and !. A. Rozman, !Gap!recruitment!and!partitioning!in!an!old-growth!beech! forest!of!the!Dinaric!Mountains:!Influences!of!light!regime,!herb!competition!and!browsing, ! Forest!Ecology!and!Management, vol.285, pp.20-28, 2012.

!. C. Dormann, !. S. Schymanski, !. J. Cabral, !. I. Chuine, !. C. Graham et al., ! Correlation! and! process! in! species! distribution!models:!Bridging!a!dichotomy, !Journal!of!Biogeography, vol.39, issue.12, pp.2119-2131, 2012.

!. C. Dulamsuren, !. M. Hauck, !. G. Kopp, !. M. Ruff, and !. C. Leuschner, !European!beech!responds!to! climate!change!with!growth!decline!at!lower,!and!growth!increase!at!higher!elevations!in!the! center!of!its!distribution!range!(SW!Germany).!Trees!-!Structure!and!Function, !, vol.31, issue.2, pp.673-686, 2017.

!. J. Dupouey, !. J. Bachacou, !. R. Cosserat, !. S. Aberdam, !. D. Vallauri et al., !Vers!la!réalistion!d'une!carte!géoréférencée!des!forêts!anciennes!de!France, pp.85-98, 2007.

E. Silva, !. D. Mazzella, !. P. Legay, !. M. Corcket, !. E. Dupouey et al., ! Does! natural! regeneration!determine!the!limit!of!European!beech!distribution!under!climatic!stress?!Forest! Ecology!and!Management, vol.266, pp.263-272, 2012.

!. F. Egerton, ! Changing! Concepts! of! the! Balance! of! Nature.! The! Quarterly! Review! of! Biology, !, vol.48, issue.2, pp.322-350, 1973.

!. G. Ettl and !. D. Peterson, !Extreme!climate!and!variation!in!tree!growth:!individualistic! response!in!subalpine!fir!(Abies!lasiocarpa), !Global!Change!Biology,!, vol.1, issue.3, pp.231-241, 1995.

!. P. Fay and !. M. Schultz, !Germination,!survival,!and!growth!of!grass!and!forb!seedlings:! Effects!of!soil!moisture!variability, !Acta!Oecologica,!, vol.35, issue.5, pp.679-684, 2009.

!. L. Feyen and !. R. Dankers, ! Impact! of! global! warming! on! streamflow! drought! in! Europe, ! Journal!of!Geophysical!Research!Atmospheres,!, vol.114, issue.17, pp.1-17, 2009.

!. M. Fields and !. C. Orians, !Specificity!of!phenolic!glycoside!induction!in!willow!seedlings! (Salix!sericea)!in!response!to!herbivory, !Journal!of!Chemical!Ecology,!, vol.32, issue.12, pp.2647-2656, 2006.

!. N. Fisichelli, !. L. Frelich, and !. P. Reich, ! Sapling! growth! responses! to! warmer! temperatures!"cooled"!by!browse!pressure, !Global!Change!Biology, vol.18, issue.11, pp.3455-3463, 2012.

!. M. Forchhammer, !. N. Stenseth, !. E. Post, and !. R. Langvatn, ! Population! dynamics! of! Norwegian! red! deer:! Density-dependence! and! climatic! variation, ! Proceedings! of! the! Royal! Society!B:!Biological!Sciences, issue.265, pp.341-350, 1393.

!. D. Forrester, !. A. Benneter, !. O. Bouriaud, and !. J. Bauhus, !Diversity!and!competition!influence! tree! allometric! relationships!-! developing! functions! for! mixed-species! forests, ! Journal! of! Ecology,!, vol.105, issue.3, pp.761-774, 2017.

!. D. Forsyth, !. D. Coomes, !. G. Hall, and !. G. Nugent, ! Diet! and! diet! preferences! of! introduced!ungulates!(Order:!Artiodactyla)!in, Journal!of!Zoology,!, vol.29, issue.4, pp.323-343, 2002.

!. D. Forsyth, !. S. Richardson, and !. K. Menchenton, !Foliar!fibre!predicts!diet!selection!by! invasive! Red! Deer! Cervus! elaphus! scoticus! in! a! temperate, ! Functional! Ecology,!, vol.19, issue.3, pp.495-504, 2005.

!. D. Foster, !. D. Orwig, !. J. Mclachlan, and !. S. , ! Ecological!and! conservation!insights!from! reconstructive!studies!of!temperate!old-growth!forests, !Trends!in!Ecology!and!Evolution.!, 1996.

!. M. Fotelli, !. A. Geßler, !. A. Peuke, and !. H. Rennenberg, !Drought!affects!the!competitive! interactions! between! Fagus! sylvatica! seedlings! and! an! early! successional! species,! Rubus! fruticosus:!Responses!of!growth,!water!status!and!$13C!composition, New!Phytologist,!, vol.151, issue.2, pp.427-435, 2001.

!. M. Fotelli, !. M. Nahm, !. K. Radoglou, !. H. Rennenberg, !. G. Halyvopoulos et al., ! Seasonal!and!interannual!ecophysiological!responses!of!beech!(Fagus!sylvatica)!at!its!southeastern!distribution!limit!in!, Europe.!Forest!Ecology!and!Management,!, vol.257, issue.3, pp.1157-1164, 2009.

!. D. Frank and !. P. Groffman, !Ungulate!vs.!landscape!control!of!soil!C!and!N!processes!in! grasslands!of!Yellowstone!National!Park, !Ecology,!, vol.79, issue.7, pp.2229-2241, 1998.

!. W. Freeland and !. D. Janzen, ! Strategies! in! herbivory! by! mammals:! the! role! of! plant! secondary!compounds, !The!American!Naturalist,!, vol.108, issue.961, pp.269-289, 1974.

!. R. Fuller and !. R. Gill, !Ecological!impacts!of!increasing!numbers!of!deer!in!British! woodland.!Forestry, !, vol.74, issue.3, pp.193-199, 2001.

!. D. Furstenburg and !. W. Van!-hoven, ! Condensed! tannin! as! anti-defoliate! agent! against! browsing! by! giraffe! (Giraffa! camelopardalis)! in! the! Kruger! National! Park, ! Comparative! Biochemistry!and!Physiology!-!Part!A:!Physiology,!, vol.107, issue.2, pp.425-431, 1994.

!. Gaillard, !. A. Mark!hewison, !. F. Klein, !. F. Plard, !. M. Douhard et al., !How!does!climate!change!influence!demographic!processes!of!widespread!species?! Lessons!from!the!comparative!analysis!of!contrasted!populations!of!roe!deer, !Ecology!Letters,!, vol.16, pp.48-57, 2013.

!. A. Gallé and !. U. Feller, !Changes!of!photosynthetic!traits!in!beech!saplings!(Fagus!sylvatica)! under!severe!drought!stress!and!during!recovery, Physiologia!Plantarum,!, vol.131, issue.3, pp.412-421, 2007.

!. L. Gamfeldt, !. T. Snäll, !. R. Bagchi, !. M. Jonsson, !. L. Gustafsson et al., , 2013.

!. J. García-plazaola, !. R. Esteban, !. K. Hormaetxe, !. B. Fernández-marín, and !. J. Becerril, ! Photoprotective!responses!of!Mediterranean!and!Atlantic!trees!to!the!extreme!heat-wave!of! summer!, !Southwestern!Europe.!Trees!-!Structure!and!Function, vol.22, pp.385-392, 2003.

!. J. Gehrig-fasel, !Tree!line!shifts!in!the!Swiss!Alps:!Climate!change!or!land!abandonment?, Journal!of!Vegetation!Science,!, vol.18, issue.4, pp.571-582, 2007.

!. L. Gilbert, ! Altitudinal! patterns! of! tick! and!host! abundance:! A! potential! role! for! climate! change!in!regulating!tick-borne!diseases?!Oecologia, !, vol.162, issue.1, pp.217-225, 2010.

!. R. Gill, ! Monitoring! the! status! of! European! and! North! American! cervids, 1990.

!. R. Gill, !A!review!of!damage!by!mammals!in!North!temperate!forests:!Deer.!Forestry, vol.65, pp.145-169, 1992.

!. C. Goetsch, !. J. Wigg, !. A. Royo, !. T. Ristau, and !. W. Carson, ! Chronic! over! browsing! and! biodiversity!collapse!in!a!forest!understory!in!Pennsylvania:!results!from!a!60!year-old!deer! exclusion!plot, !The!Journal!of!the!Torrey!Botanical!Society, 2011.

!. L. Gómez-aparicio, !. R. Zamora, !. J. Castro, and !. J. Hódar, !Facilitation!of!tree!saplings!by!nurse! plants:! Microhabitat! amelioration! or! protection! against! herbivores?, Journal! of! Vegetation! Science,!, vol.19, pp.161-172, 2008.

!. L. Gómez, !. R. Zamora, !. J. Gómez, !. J. Hódar, and !. J. Castro, !Applying!plan!facilitation!to! forest!restoration!in!Mediterranean!ecosystems:!a!meta-analysis!of!the!shrubs!as!nurse!plants, ! Ecological!Applications,!, vol.14, issue.4, pp.1118-1138, 2004.

!. N. Gomez, ! Quel! avenir! pour! le! sapin! et! l'épicéa#?! Synthèse! bibliographique! sur! l'autécologie! et! la! vulnérabilité! comparée! du! sapin! et! de! l'épicéa! dans! le! cadre! des! changements!climatiques, Rendez-Vous!Techniques!de!l'ONF,!, pp.3-6, 2012.

!. P. Grieu, !. J. Guehl, and !. G. Aussenac, ! The! effects! of! soil! and! atmospheric! drought! on! photosynthesis!and!stomatal!control!of!gas!exchange!in!three!coniferous!species, Physiologia! Plantarum, vol.73, pp.97-104, 1988.

!. J. Guehl, !Etude!comparée!des!potentialités!hivernales!d'assimilation!carbonée!de!trois! conifères!de!la!zone!tempérée!(Pseudotsuga!menziesii!Mirb.,!Abies!alba!Mill.!et!Picea!excelsa! Link, Annals!of!Forest!Science,!, vol.42, issue.1, pp.23-38, 1985.

!. A. Guisan, !. N. Zimmermann, and !. E. , ! Predictive! habitat! distribution! models! in! ecology, ! Ecological!Modelling,!, vol.135, issue.2-3, pp.147-186, 2000.

!. J. Hamilton, !. A. Zangerl, !. E. Delucia, and !. M. Berenbaum, ! The! carbon-nutrient! balance!hypothesis:!Its!rise!and!fall, !Ecology!Letters,!, vol.4, issue.1, pp.86-95, 2001.

!. M. Hanley, !. B. Lamont, !. M. Fairbanks, and !. C. Rafferty, !Plant!structural!traits!and! their!role!in!anti-herbivore!defence.!Perspectives!in!Plant!Ecology, !Evolution!and!Systematics,!, vol.8, issue.4, pp.157-178, 2007.

!. T. Hanley, ! Physical! and! chemical! responses! of! understory! vegetation! to! deer! use! in! southeastern!Alaska, !Canadian!Journal!of!Botany, vol.17, pp.195-199, 1987.

!. G. Hardin, !The!tragedy!of!the!commons, vol.162, pp.1243-1248, 1968.

!. R. Harmer, !. A. Kiewitt, !. G. Morgan, and !. R. Gill, !Does!the!development!of!bramble!(Rubus! fruticosus!L.!agg.)!facilitate!the!growth!and!establishment!of!tree!seedlings!in!woodlands!by! reducing!deer!browsing!damage?!Forestry, !, vol.83, issue.1, pp.93-102, 2010.

!. C. Harvell, !The!ecology!and!evolution!of!inducible!defenses.!The!Quarterly!Review!of! Biology, !, vol.65, issue.3, pp.323-340, 1990.

!. H. Häsler and !. J. Senn, ! Ungulate! browsing! on! European! silver! fir! Abies! alba:! the! role! of! occasions,!food!shortage!and!diet!preferences, !, vol.18, issue.1, pp.67-74, 2012.

!. S. Heinrichs, !. W. Winterhoff, and !. W. Schmidt, ! Vegetation! dynamics! of! beech! forests! on! limestone! in! central! Germany! over! half! a! century!-! effects! of! climate! change,! forest! man, ! Biodiversity!and!Ecology, pp.49-61, 2012.

!. D. Herms and !. W. Mattson, !The!dilemma!of!plants:!to!grow!or!defend.!The!, Quarterly! Review!of!Biology, vol.67, issue.3, pp.283-335, 1992.

!. A. Herrero, !. P. Almaraz, !. R. Zamora, !. J. Castro, and !. J. Hódar, !From!the!individual!to!the! landscape!and!back:!Time-varying!effects!of!climate!and!herbivory!on!tree!sapling!growth!at! distribution!limits, !Journal!of!Ecology, vol.104, issue.2, pp.430-442, 2016.

!. A. Herrero, !. R. Zamora, !. J. Castro, and !. J. Hódar, !Limits!of!pine!forest!distribution!at!the! treeline:!Herbivory!matters, !Plant!Ecology,!, vol.213, issue.3, pp.459-469, 2012.

!. A. Hessl and !. W. Baker, !Spruce!and!Fir!Regeneration!and!Climate!in!the!Forest-Tundra! Ecotone!of!Regeneration!Spruce!National!Mountain!Colorado, !, vol.29, issue.2, pp.173-183, 2010.

!. P. Heuzé, !. A. Schnitzler, and !. F. Klein, !Consequences!of!increased!deer!browsing!winter!on! silver!fir!and!spruce!regeneration!in!the!Southern!Vosges!mountains:!Implications!for!forest! management, !Annals!of!Forest!Science, vol.62, pp.175-181, 2005.

!. B. Hidding, !. Tremblay, and !. S. Côté, !Survival!and!growth!of!balsam!fir!seedlings!and! saplings! under! multiple! controlled! ungulate! densities.! Forest! Ecology! and! Management, !, vol.276, pp.96-103, 2012.

!. B. Hidding, !. Tremblay, and !. S. Côté, !A!large!herbivore!triggers!alternative!successional! trajectories!in!the!boreal!forest, !Ecology,!, vol.94, issue.12, pp.2852-2860, 2013.

!. G. Hilton and !. J. Packham, !Variation!in!the!masting!of!common!beech!(Fagus!sylvatica! L.)!in!northern!Europe!over!two!centuries!(1800-2001).!Forestry, !, vol.76, issue.3, pp.319-328, 2003.

!. Y. Hirabayashi, !. S. Kanae, !. S. Emori, !. T. Oki, and !. M. Kimoto, !Global!projections!of!changing! risks!of!floods!and!droughts!in!a!changing!climate, !Hydrological!Sciences!Journal,!, vol.53, issue.4, pp.754-772, 2008.

!. R. Hofmann, !Evolutionary!steps!of!ecophysiological!adaptation!and!diversification!of! ruminants:!a!comparative!view!of!their!digestive!system, !, vol.78, issue.4, pp.443-457, 1989.

!. R. Hofmann, !. D. Stewart, and . !-r.!-m.!, ! Grazer! or! browser:! a! classification! based! on! the! stomach-structure!and!feeding!habits!of!East!African!ruminants, !Mammalia, issue.1, pp.226-240, 1972.

!. M. Hornung, !Acidification!of!soils!by!trees!and!forests.!Soil!Use!and!Management, vol.1, pp.24-27, 1985.

!. S. Horsley, !. S. Stout, !. D. Decalesta, and !. S. , !White-tailed!deer!impact!on!the!vegetation! dynamics!of!a!northern!hardwood!forest, !Ecological!Applications.!, 2003.

!. T. Houston!-durrant, !. D. Rigo, and !. G. Caudullo, ! Fagus! sylvatica! and! other! beeches! in! Europe:!distrubution,!habitat,!usage!and!threats.!European!Atlas!of!Forest!Tree!Species, pp.130-131, 2016.

!. S. Husheer, !. Q. Hansen, and !. S. Urlich, !Effects!of!red!deer!on!tree!regeneration!and! growth!in!Aorangi!Forest,!Wairarapa, Journal!of!Ecology, 2005.

I. , !Les!forêts!mélangées.!L'IF,!La!Feuille!de!l'Inventaire!Forestier, vol.36, 2016.

I. , !Le!mémento.!Inventaire!Forestier!National,!, vol.29, 2017.

I. , !La!nature!ordinaire.!Dossier!de!l'environnement!N°29, pp.39-43, 2003.

I. , !Changements!climatiques!2013,!les!éléments!scientifiques, 2013.

!. F. Isbell, !. D. Craven, !. J. Connolly, !. M. Loreau, !. B. Schmid et al., , pp.574-577, 2015.

!. H. Itô, !. T. Hino, and !. H. Takahashi, !Optimum!density!of!sika!deer!for!tree!seedling!survival.! The!Journal!of!Wildlife!Management, 2014.

!. H. Jactel and !. E. Brockerhoff, !Tree!diversity!reduces!herbivory!by!forest!insects, !Ecology! Letters,!, vol.10, issue.9, pp.835-848, 2007.

!. H. Jactel, !. E. Gritti, !. L. Drössler, !. D. Forrester, !. W. Mason et al., ! Positive! biodiversity-productivity! relationships! in! forests:! climate! matters, !Biology!Letters,!, vol.14, issue.4, 2018.

!. E. Jeffers, !. N. Whitehouse, !. A. Lister, !. G. Plunkett, !. P. Barratt et al., !Plant!controls!on! Late!Quaternary!whole!ecosystem!structure!and!function, pp.1-12, 2018.

!. M. Jonard, !. A. Fürst, !. A. Verstraeten, !. A. Thimonier, !. V. Timmerman et al., ! 25! ans! RENECOFOR.! In! Dégradation! de! la! nutrition! des! arbres! en! phosphore#:! un! signal! confirmé!à!l'échelle!européenne, 2017.

!. T. Jucker, !. O. Bouriaud, !. D. Avacaritei, and !. D. Coomes, !Stabilizing!effects!of!diversity!on! aboveground!wood!production!in!forest!ecosystems:!linking!patterns!and!processes, !Ecology! Letters, vol.17, issue.12, pp.1560-1569, 2014.

!. A. Jump, !. J. Hunt, !. J. Martínez-izquierdo, and !. J. Peñuelas, !Natural!selection!and!climate! change:!Temperature-linked!spatial!and!temporal!trends!in!gene!frequency!in!Fagus!sylvatica, ! Molecular!Ecology,!, vol.15, issue.11, pp.3469-3480, 2006.

!. A. Jump, !. J. Hunt, and !. J. Peñuelas, !Rapid!climate!change-related!growth!decline!at!the! southern!range!edge!of!Fagus!sylvatica, !Global!Change!Biology,!, vol.12, issue.11, pp.2163-2174, 2006.

!. A. Jump, !. J. Hunt, and !. J. Peñuelas, !Climate!relationships!of!growth!and!establishment! across!the!atitudinal!range!of!Fagus!sylvatica!in!the!Montseny!Mounyains, !northeast!Spain.! Ecoscience,!, vol.14, issue.4, pp.507-518, 2007.

!. A. Jump and !. J. Peñuelas, !Running!to!stand!still:!adaptation!and!the!response!of!plants!to! rapid!climate!change, !Ecology!Letters,!, vol.8, issue.9, 2005.

!. T. Kato, !. K. Ishida, and !. H. Sato, !The!evolution!of!nettle!resistance!to!heavy!deer!browsing, ! Ecological!Research, vol.23, issue.2, pp.339-345, 2008.

!. P. Kauppi, !. K. Mielikainen, !. K. Kuusela, !. P. Kauppi, !. K. Mielikainen et al., ! Biomass! and! Carbon! Budget! of! European! Forests! ,! 1971! to! 1990! Published! by#:! American! Association!for!the!Advancement!of!Science!Biomass!and!Carbon!Budget!of!European!Forests!, pp.70-74, 2016.

!. F. Keller, !. F. Kienast, and !. M. Beniston, !Evidence!of!response!of!vegetation!to!environmental! change!on!high-elevation!sites!in!the!Swiss!Alps, !Regional!Environmental!Change,!, vol.1, issue.2, pp.70-77, 2000.

!. C. Kiffner, !. E. Rößiger, !. O. Trisl, !. R. Schulz, and !. F. Rühe, !Probability!of!Recent!Bark!Stripping! a!Low!Mountain!Range!in!Germany!-!A!Preliminary!Analysis, !Silva!Fennica,!, vol.42, issue.1, pp.125-134, 2008.

. Kilpelainen, !. H. Peltola, !. I. Rouvinen, and !. S. Kellomaki, !Dynamics!of!daily!height!growth!in! Scots!pine!trees!at!elevated!temperature!and!CO2.!Trees-Structure!and!Function, !, vol.20, issue.1, pp.16-27, 2006.

!. K. Kirby, !. F. Mitchell, and !. A. Hester, !A!role!for!large!herbivores!(deer!and!domestic! stock)! in! nature! conservation! management! in! British! semi-natural! woods, ! Arboricultural! Journal, vol.18, pp.381-399, 1994.

!. E. Klimo, !. H. Hager, and !. J. Kulhavý, !Spruce!Monocultures!in!Central!Europe-Problems!and! Prospects, 2000.

!. S. Koh, !. T. Watt, !. D. Bazely, !. D. Pearl, !. M. Tang et al., !Impact!of!herbivory!of! white-tailed! deer! (Odocoileus! virginianus)! on! plant! community! composition, ! Aspects! of! Applied!Biology, 1996.

!. B. Konôpka and !. J. Pajtík, !Why!was!browsing!by!red!deer!more!frequent!but!represented! less!consumed!mass!in!young!maple!than!in!ash!trees?, !Journal!of!Forest!Science,!, vol.61, issue.10, pp.431-438, 2015.

!. T. Kraus, !. R. Dahlgren, and !. R. Zasoski, ! Tannins! in! nutrient! dynamics! of! forest! ecosystems-a!review, !Plant!and!Soil, vol.256, pp.41-66, 2003.

!. D. Kuijper, !. J. Cromsigt, !. M. Churski, !. B. Adam, !. B. Jedrzejewska et al., !Do!ungulates!preferentially!feed!in!forest!gaps!in!European!temperate!forest?!Forest! Ecology!and!Management, !, vol.258, issue.7, pp.1528-1535, 2009.

!. A. Kuiters and !. P. Slim, ! Regeneration! of! mixed! deciduous! forest! in! a! Dutch! forestheathland,following!a!reduction!of!ungulate!densities, !Biological!Conservation,!, vol.105, pp.65-74, 2002.

!. Y. Kullberg and !. R. Bergström, !Winter!browsing!by!large!herbivores!on!planted!deciduous! seedlings!in!southern!Sweden, !Scandinavian!Journal!of!Forest!Research,!, vol.16, issue.4, pp.371-378, 2001.

!. G. Kunstler, !. C. Albert, !. B. Courbaud, !. S. Lavergne, !. W. Thuiller et al., !Effects!of!competition!on!tree!radial-growth!vary!in!importance!but! not!in!intensity!along!climatic!gradients, !Journal!of!Ecology,!, vol.99, issue.1, pp.300-312, 2011.

!. A. Kupferschmid and !. H. Bugmann, !Effect!of!microsites,!logs!and!ungulate!browsing!on! Picea! abies! regeneration! in! a! mountain! forest, ! Forest! Ecology! and! Management,!, vol.205, issue.1-3, pp.251-265, 2005.

!. A. Kupferschmid, !. U. Wasem, and !. H. Bugmann, !Light!availability!and!ungulate!browsing! determine! growth,! height! and! mortality! of! Abies! alba! saplings, ! Forest! Ecology! and! Management, vol.318, pp.359-369, 2014.

!. J. Lane, !. L. Kruuk, !. A. Charmantier, !. J. Murie, !. F. Dobson et al., !Delayed!phenology! and!reduced!fitness!associated!with!climate!change!in!a!wild!hibernator.!Nature, !, vol.489, issue.7417, pp.554-557, 2012.

!. L. Larrieu, ! Les! dendro-microhabitats#:! facteurs! clés! de! leur! occurrence! dans! les! peuplements!forestiers,!impact!de!la!gestion!et!relation!avec!la!biodiversité!taxonomique, 2014.

!. L. Larrieu, !. H. Brustel, !. A. Cabanettes, !. G. Corriol, !. A. Delarue et al., ! Impact! de! l'anthropisation! ancienne! sur! la! biodiversité! d'un! habitat! de! hêtraie!-! sapinière!montagnarde.!Revue!Forestière!Française, !, vol.61, issue.6, pp.351-368, 2009.

!. P. Le!goffe, !Économie!rurale!Économie!et!politique!de!la!chasse!Application!au!cas!français, ! Economie!Rurale, pp.11-23, 2012.

!. F. Lebourgeois, !Réponse!au!climat!du!sapin!(Abies!alba!Mill.)!et!de!l'épicéa!(Picea!abies! (L.)!Karts.)!dans!le!réseau!RENECOFOR.!Rev.!For.!Fr, vol.58, pp.419-432, 2006.

!. F. Lebourgeois, !. N. Bréda, !. E. Ulrich, and !. A. Granier, !Climate-tree-growth!relationships!of! European!beech!(Fagus!sylvatica!L.)!in!the!French!Permanent!Plot!Network!(RENECOFOR).! Trees!-!Structure!and!Function, !, vol.19, issue.4, pp.385-401, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01831365

!. F. Lebourgeois, !. N. Gomez, !. P. Pinto, and !. P. Mérian, !Mixed!stands!reduce!Abies!alba!treering!sensitivity!to!summer!drought!in!the, !Forest!Ecology! and!Management, vol.303, pp.61-71, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01003334

!. M. Legay, !. T. Cordonnier, and !. Dhôte, ! Des! forêts! mélangées! pour! composer! avec! les! changements!climatiques.!Revue!Forestière!Française, !, vol.60, issue.2, pp.181-190, 2008.

!. M. Legay, !. T. Cordonnier, !. P. Mengin-lecreux, !. C. Micheneau, !. A. Franc et al., !Forêts! et!milieux!naturels!face!aux!changements!climatiques.!Rendez-Vous!Techniques,!(Hors-série! 3, vol.104, 2007.

!. J. Lendzion and !. C. Leuschner, !Growth!of!European!beech!(Fagus!sylvatica!L.)!saplings!is! limited!by!elevated!atmospheric!vapour!pressure!deficits.! Forest!Ecology!and!Management, !, vol.256, issue.4, pp.648-655, 2008.

!. J. Lenoir, !. Gégout, !. P. Marquet, !. P. Ruffray, and !. H. Brisse, !A!significant!upward!shift! in! plant! species! optimum! elevation! during! the! 20th! century, ! Science!, vol.320, issue.5884, pp.1768-71, 2008.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00309546

!. J. Lenoir, !. Gégout, !. Pierrat, !. Bontemps, and !. Dhôte, !Differences!between!tree! species!seedling!and!adult!altitudinal!distribution!in!mountain!forests!during!the!recent!warm! period!, !Ecography,!, vol.32, issue.5, pp.765-777, 1986.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01195022

!. J. Liang, !. J. Buongiorno, !. R. Monserud, !. E. Kruger, and !. M. Zhou, !Effects!of!diversity!of!tree! species!and!size!on!forest!basal!area!growth,!recruitment,!and!mortality, !Forest!Ecology!and! Management,!, vol.243, issue.1, pp.116-127, 2007.

!. M. Lindner, ! Developing! adaptive! forest! management! strategies! to! cope! with! climate! change, Tree!Physiology,!, vol.20, issue.5_6, pp.299-307, 2000.

!. M. Lindner, !. M. Maroschek, !. S. Netherer, !. A. Kremer, !. A. Barbati et al., ! Climate! change! impacts,! adaptive! capacity,! and! vulnerability! of! European! forest! ecosystems, ! Forest! Ecology! and! Management,!, vol.259, issue.4, pp.698-709, 2010.

!. R. Little and !. D. Peterson, !Regeneration!of!sulbalpine!fir!(Abies!lasiocarpa)!following! fire:!effects!of!climate!and!other!factors, !Canadian!Journal!of!Forest!Research,!, vol.24, issue.5, pp.934-944, 1994.

!. F. Lloret, !. J. Peñuelas, and !. M. Estiarte, ! Experimental! evidence! of! reduced! diversity! of! seedlings! due! to! climate! modification! in! a! Mediterranean-type! community, ! Global! Change! Biology, vol.10, issue.2, pp.248-258, 2004.

!. B. Lloyd-hughes and !. M. Saunders, ! A! drought! climatology! for! Europe, ! International! Journal!of!Climatology,!, vol.22, issue.13, pp.1571-1592, 2002.

!. A. Lloyd and !. C. Fastie, !Recent!changes!in!treeline!forest!distribution!and!structure!in! interior!Alaska, !, vol.10, issue.2, pp.176-185, 2003.

!. A. Loison, !. R. Langvatn, !. J. Solberg, and !. E. , ! Body! mass! and! winter! mortality! in! red! deer! calves:disentangling! sex! and! climate! effects.! Ecography,! 22,! 20-30, 1999.

!. D. Loustau, !. J. Ogee, !. E. Dufrêne, !. M. Déqué, !. Dupouey et al., ! Impacts! of! climate! change! on! temperate! forests! and! interactions! with! management.! Forestry! and! Climate! Change, vol.253, 2007.

!. K. Löyttyniemi, !On!repeated!browsing!of!Scots!pine!saplings!by!Moose, 1985.

!. P. Madsen and !. J. Larsen, !Natural!regeneration!of!beech!(Fagus!sylvatica!L.)!with!respect! to!canopy!density,!soil!moisture!and!soil!carbon!content, !Forest!Ecology!and!Management, vol.97, pp.95-105, 1997.

!. E. Maher and !. M. Germino, ! Microsite! differentiation! among! conifer! species! during! seedling!establishment!at!alpine!treeline, !Ecoscience,!, vol.13, issue.3, pp.334-341, 2006.

!. V. Maris, ! Nature! a* ! vendre#:! les! limites! des! services! e+ cosyste+ miques,! 94, 2014.

!. V. Maris, !. Revéret, and . Creum, ! Les! limites! de! l'évaluation! économique! de! la! biodiversité, vol.4, 2009.

!. B. Martin and !. E. Schwab, !Symbiosis:!"Living!together"!in!chaos.!Studies!in!History!of! Biology, vol.20, 2012.

!. V. Masson-delmotte, !. G. Raffalli-delerce, !. P. Danis, !. P. Yiou, !. M. Stievenard et al., !Changes!in!European!precipitation! seasonality! and! in! drought! frequencies! revealed! by! a! four-century-long! tree-ring! isotopic! record!from, Climate!Dynamics,!, vol.24, issue.1, pp.57-69, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00067886

!. A. Mauri, !. D. Rigo, !. De, and !. G. Caudullo, !Abies!alba!in!Europe#:!distribution,!habitat,!usage!and! threats.!In, 2016.

;. European!atlas!of!forest and . Luxembourg, Tree!Species!, pp.48-49

!. K. Mccann, !. A. Hastings, and !. G. Huxel, !Weak!trophic!interactions!andthe!balance!of!nature.! Nature, !, vol.395, pp.794-798, 1998.

!. J. Mcgarvey, !. N. Bourg, !. J. Thompson, !. W. Mcshea, and !. X. Shen, !Effects!of!twenty! years! of! deer! exclusion! on! woody! vegetation! at! three! life-history! stages! in! a! mid-Atlantic! temperate!deciduous!forest, !Northeastern!Naturalist,!, vol.20, issue.3, pp.451-468, 2013.

!. S. Mcmahon, !. G. Parker, and !. D. Miller, !Evidence!for!a!recent!increase!in!forest!growth, ! Proceedings!of!the!National!Academy!of!Sciences, issue.107, pp.3611-3615, 2010.

M. , !. Unece, and . Fao, !State!of!Europe's!forests!2007.!The!MCPFE!report!on!sustainable! forest!management!in!Europe, 2007.

!. Y. Messaoud, !. Y. Bergeron, and !. H. Asselin, ! Reproductive! potential! of! Balsam! fir! (Abies! balsamea),! white! spruce! (Picea! glauca),! and! black! spruce! (Picea! mariana)! at! the! ecotone! between!mixedwood!and!coniferous!forests!in!the!boreal!zone!of!western!Quebec, !, vol.94, issue.5, pp.746-754, 2007.

!. R. Michalet, !. Pagès, !. P. Saccone, and !. Brun, !Les!interactions!entre!espèces!dans!les! mélanges!illustrées!par!le!cas!des!feuillus!et!des!conifères!dans!les!forêts!de!montagne, !Revue! Forestière!Française,!, vol.60, issue.1, pp.139-153, 2008.

, !Programme!National!de!la!Forêt!et!du!Bois, 2008.

!. F. Mitchell and !. K. Kirby, !The!impact!of!large!herbivores!on!the!conservation!of!semi! natural!woods!in!the!British!uplands, !Forestry,!, vol.63, issue.4, pp.333-353, 1990.

!. Moisselin, !. M. Schneider, and !. C. Canellas, !Les!changements!climatiques!en!France!au! XXè! siècle.! Etude! des! longues! séries! homogénéisées! de! données! de! température! et! de! précipitations, !La!Météorologie,!, vol.8, issue.38, 2002.

!. A. Mondoni, !. G. Rossi, !. S. Orsenigo, and !. R. Probert, !Climate!warming!could!shift!the!timing! of!seed!germination!in!alpine!plants, !Annals!of!Botany,!, vol.110, issue.1, pp.155-164, 2012.

!. N. Moran and !. W. Hamilton, !Low!nutritive!quality!as!defense!against!herbivores, !Journal! of!Theoretical!Biology, vol.86, issue.2, pp.247-254, 1980.

!. N. Morellet, !. S. Champely, !. Gaillard, !. P. Ballon, and !. Y. Boscardin, !The!browsing!index:! new!tool!uses!browsing!pressure!to!monitor!deer!populations, !Wildlife!Society!Bulletin,!, vol.29, issue.4, pp.1243-1252, 2001.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01604733

!. N. Morellet, !. Gaillard, !. A. Hewison, !. P. Ballon, !. Y. Boscardin et al., !Indicators!of!ecological!change:!New!tools!for!managing!populations!of! large!herbivores, !Journal!of!Applied!Ecology,!, vol.44, issue.3, pp.634-643, 2007.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00185966

!. X. Morin, !. L. Fahse, !. C. Mazancourt, !. M. Scherer-lorenzen, and !. H. Bugmann, !Temporal! stability! in! forest! productivity! increases! with! tree! diversity! due! to! asynchrony! in! species! dynamics, !Ecology!Letters, vol.17, issue.12, pp.1526-1535, 2014.

!. X. Morin, !. L. Fahse, !. M. Scherer-lorenzen, and !. H. Bugmann, !Tree!species!richness!promotes! productivity!in!temperate!forests!through!strong!complementarity!between!species, !Ecology! Letters,!, vol.14, issue.12, pp.1211-1219, 2011.

!. X. Morin, !. J. Roy, !. L. Sonié, and !. I. Chuine, !Changes!in!leaf!phenology!of!three!European!oak! species!in!response!to!experimental!climate!change, !The!New!Phytologist,!, vol.186, issue.4, pp.900-910, 2010.

!. X. Morin and !. W. Thuiller, !Comparing!niche-!and!process-based!models!to!reduce!prediction! uncertainty!in!species!range!shifts!under!climate!change, !Ecology,!, vol.90, issue.5, pp.1301-1313, 2009.

!. R. Motta, !Wild!ungulate!browsing,!natural!regeneration!and!silviculture!in!the!Italian!Alps, ! Journal!of!Sustainable!Forestry,!, vol.8, issue.2, pp.35-53, 1999.

!. R. Motta, !Ungulate!impact!on!rowan!(Sorbus!aucuparia!L.)!and!Norway!spruce!(Picea!abies! (L.)!Karst.)!height!structure!in!mountain!forests!in!the!eastern!Italian!Alps.!Forest!Ecology!and! Management, vol.181, pp.139-150, 2003.

!. K. Moyes, !. D. Nussey, !. M. Clements, !. F. Guinness, !. A. Morris et al., !Advancing!breeding!phenology!in!response!to! environmental! change! in! a! wild! red! deer! population, ! Global! Change! Biology, vol.17, issue.7, pp.2455-2469, 2011.

!. I. Murata, !. S. Saruki, !. K. Kubota, !. S. Inoue, !. N. Tashiro et al., ! Effects!of!sika!deer!(Cervus!nippon)!and!dwarf!bamboo!(Sasamorpha!borealis)!on!seedling! emergence!and!survival!in!cool-temperate!mixed!forests!in!the!Kyushu!Mountains, !Journal!of! Forest!Research, 2009.

!. T. Nagel, !. J. Diaci, !. K. Jerina, !. M. Kobal, and !. D. Rozenbergar, ! Simultaneous! influence! of! canopy!decline!and!deer!herbivory!on!regeneration!in!a!conifer-broadleaf!forest, !Canadian! Journal!of!Forest!Research, 2015.

!. E. Neuschulz, !. D. Merges, !. K. Bollmann, !. F. Gugerli, and !. K. Böhning-gaese, ! Biotic! interactions! and! seed! deposition! rather! than! abiotic! factors! determine! recruitment! at! elevational!range!limits!of!an!alpine!tree, !Journal!of!Ecology, pp.1-12, 2017.

!. G. Nugent, !. W. Mcshea, !. J. Parkes, !. S. Woodley, !. J. Waithaka et al., !Policies!and!management!of! overabundant!deer!(native!or!exotic)!in!protected!areas, !Animal!Production!Science,!, vol.51, issue.4, pp.384-389, 2011.

!. J. Obeso, !The!induction!of!spinescence!in!European!holly!leaves!by!browsing!ungulates.! Plant!Ecology, !, vol.129, issue.2, pp.149-156, 1997.

!. J. Oleksyn, !. J. Modrzy'ski, !. M. Tjoelker, !. R. Zytkowiak, !. P. Reich et al., ! Growth!and!physiology!of!Picea!abies!populations!from!elevational!transects:!Common!garden! evidence!for!altitudinal!ecotypes!and!cold!adaptation, !Functional!Ecology,!, vol.12, issue.4, pp.573-590, 1998.

!. J. Olofsson, !. P. Hulme, !. L. Oksanen, and !. O. Suominen, !Effects!of!mammalian!herbivores!on! revegetation! of! disturbed! areas! in! the! forest-tundra! ecotone! in! northern! Fennoscandia, ! Landscape!Ecology.!, 2005.

!. J. Olofsson, !. L. Oksanen, !. T. Callaghan, !. P. Hulme, !. T. Oksanen et al., !Herbivores! inhibit!climate-driven!shrub!expansion!on!the!tundra, !Global!Change!Biology,!, vol.15, issue.11, pp.2681-2693, 2009.

!. C. Orians, !. A. Thorn, and !. S. Gómez, !Herbivore-induced!resource!sequestration!in!plants:! Why!bother?!Oecologia, !, vol.167, issue.1, pp.1-9, 2011.

!. J. Packham, !. P. Thomas, !. M. Atkinson, and !. Degen, !Biological!Flora!of!the!British! Isles:!Fagus!sylvatica, !Journal!of!Ecology,!, vol.100, issue.6, pp.1557-1608, 2012.

!. A. Paquette and !. C. Messier, !The!effect!of!biodiversity!on!tree!productivity:!From!temperate! to!boreal!forests, !Global!Ecology!and!Biogeography,!, vol.20, issue.1, pp.170-180, 2011.

!. K. Parker, !. M. Gillingham, !. T. Hanley, and !. C. Robbins, !Foraging!efficiency:!Energy! expenditure!versus!energy!gain!in!free-ranging!black-tailed!deer, !Canadian!Journal!of!Zoology,!, vol.74, issue.3, pp.442-450, 1996.

!. C. Parmesan and !. G. Yohe, !A!globally!coherent!fingerprint!of!climate!change!impacts!across! natural!systems.!Nature,!421, vol.37, 2003.

!. M. Pellerin, !. M. Picard, !. S. Saïd, !. E. Baubet, and !. C. Baltzinger, ! Complementary! endozoochorous! long-distance! seed! dispersal! by! three! native! herbivorous! ungulates! in!, Europe.!Basic!and!Applied!Ecology,!, vol.17, issue.4, pp.321-332, 2016.

!. M. Pellerin, !. S. Saïd, !. E. Richard, !. J. Hamann, !. C. Dubois-coli et al., !Impact!of!deer!on! temperate! forest! vegetation! and! woody! debris! as! protection! of! forest! regeneration! against! browsing, !Forest!Ecology!and!Management,!, vol.260, issue.4, pp.429-437, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539518

!. D. Peltzer, !. R. Allen, !. P. Bellingham, !. S. Richardson, !. E. Wright et al., ! Disentangling! drivers! of! tree! population! size! distributions, 2014.

!. J. Peñuelas and !. M. Boada, !A!global!change-induced!biome!shift!in!the!Montseny!mountains! (NE!Spain), !Global!Change!Biology, vol.9, issue.2, pp.131-140, 2003.

!. J. Peñuelas, !. J. Hunt, !. R. Ogaya, and !. A. Jump, !Twentieth!century!changes!of!tree-ring! $13C!at!the!southern!range-edge!of!Fagus!sylvatica:!Increasing!water-use!efficiency!does!not! avoid!the!growth!decline!induced!by!warming!at!low!altitudes, !Global!Change!Biology,!, vol.14, issue.5, pp.1076-1088, 2008.

!. N. Pérez-harguindeguy, !. S. Díaz, !. F. Vendramini, !. J. Cornelissen, !. D. Gurvich et al., !Leaf!traits!and!herbivore!selection!in!the!field!and!in!cafeteria!experiments, !Austral! Ecology,!, vol.28, issue.6, pp.642-650, 2003.

!. J. Peyron and !. F. Houllier, ! Growth! and! Management! of! Forests! in! the! French! Jura#:! Implications!for!Economic!Returns!and!Tree!Diversity,!, 1995.

!. S. Pickett and !. V. Parker, !Avoiding!the!Old!Pitfalls:!Opportunities!in!a!New!Discipline.! Restoration!Ecology, vol.2, pp.75-79, 1994.

!. C. Piedallu, !. V. Perez, !. Gégout, !. F. Lebourgeois, !. R. Bertrand et al., ! Impact! potentiel! du! changement!climatique!sur!la!distribution!de!l'Epicéa,!du!Sapin,!du!Hêtre!et!du!Chêne!sessile! en!France.!Revue!Forestière!Française, pp.567-593, 2009.

!. P. Pinto and !. E. , ! Ecologie! et! croissance! de! Abies! alba! Mill, 2008.

!. P. Pinto and !. Gégout, !Assessing!the!nutritional!and!climatic!response!of!temperate! tree!species!in!the!Vosges!Mountains, Annals!of!Forest!Science, vol.62, pp.761-770, 2005.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00883931

!. F. Plard, !. Gaillard, !. T. Coulson, !. A. Hewison, !. D. Delorme et al., !Mismatch!Between!Birth!Date!and!Vegetation!Phenology!Slows!the! Demography!of! Roe!Deer, !PLoS!Biology,!, vol.12, issue.4, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02045105

!. E. Post and !. C. Pedersen, ! Opposing! plant! community! responses! to! warming! with! and! without!herbivores, Proceedings!of!the!National!Academy!of!Sciences!of!the!, vol.105, pp.12353-12358, 2008.

!. E. Post, !. N. Stenseth, !. R. Langvatn, and !. J. Fromentin, ! Global! climate! change! and! phenotypic!variation!among!red!deer!cohorts, !Proceedings.!Biological!Sciences!/!The!Royal! Society,!, vol.264, pp.1317-1341, 1386.

!. F. Potvin, !. P. Beaupre, and !. G. Laprise, !The!eradication!of!balsam!fir!stands!by!white-tailed! deer!on!Anticosti!Island,!Quebec:!A!150-year!process, !Écoscience,!, vol.10, issue.4, pp.487-495, 2003.

!. F. Potvin, !. P. Beaupré, and !. G. Laprise, !The!eradication!of!balsam!fir!stands!by!white-tailed! deer!on!Anticosti!Island,!Québec:!a!150-year!process, !Ecoscience,!, vol.10, issue.4, pp.487-495, 2003.

!. H. Pretzsch, ! Canopy! space! filling! and! tree! crown! morphology! in! mixed-species! stands! compared!with!monocultures, !Forest!Ecology!and!Management, vol.327, pp.251-264, 2014.

!. F. Provenza and !. J. Malechek, !Diet!selection!by!domestic!goats!in!relation!to!blackbrush! twig!chemistry, !Journal!of!Applied!Ecology,!, vol.21, issue.21, pp.831-841, 1984.

!. B. Purse, !. P. Mellor, !. D. Rogers, !. A. Samuel, !. P. Mertens et al., !Climate! change!and!the!recent!emergence!of!bluetongue!in!Europe, Nature!Reviews!Microbiology, vol.3, issue.2, pp.171-181, 2005.

!. S. Randolph and !. E. , !Evidence!that!climate!change!has!caused!'emergence'of!tick-borne!diseases! in!Europe?, !International!Journal!of!Medical!Microbiology!Supplements,!, vol.293, issue.37, pp.5-15, 2004.

!. S. Rasmann, !. L. Pellissier, !. E. Defossez, !. H. Jactel, and !. G. Kunstler, !Climate-driven!change!in! plant-insect!interactions!along!elevation!gradients, !Functional!Ecology,!, vol.28, issue.1, pp.46-54, 2014.

!. S. Ratcliffe, !. C. Wirth, !. T. Jucker, !. F. Plas, !. M. Scherer-lorenzen et al., ! Biodiversity! and! ecosystem! functioning!relations!in!European!forests!depend!on!environmental!context, vol.20, pp.1414-1426, 2017.

!. D. Reale, !. A. Mcadam, !. S. Boutin, and !. D. Berteaux, ! Genetic! and! plastic! responses! of! a! northern!mammal!to!climate!change.!Proceedings!of!the, Royal!Society!B:!Biological!Sciences, pp.591-596, 1515.

!. C. Redjadj, ! Etude! inter-! et! intra-spécifique! des! variations! spatio-temporelles! de! l'utilisation!des!ressources!alimentaires!au!sein!d'une!communauté!de!grands!herbivores!de! montagne, 2010.

!. C. Redjadj, !. G. Darmon, !. D. Maillard, !. T. Chevrier, !. D. Bastianelli et al., ! Intra-! and! interspecific! differences! in! diet! quality! and! composition! in! a! large! herbivore!community, !PLoS!ONE, issue.9, 2014.

!. P. Reich and !. J. Oleksyn, !Global!patterns!of!plant!leaf!N!and!P!in!relation!to!temperature! and!latitude, Proceedings!of!the!National!Academy!of!Sciences!of!the!, vol.101, pp.11001-11007, 2004.

!. T. Repo, !. H. Hänninen, and !. S. Kellomäki, ! The! effects! of! long-term! elevation! of! air! temperature!and!CO!on!the!frost!hardiness!of!Scots!pine, !Plant,!Cell!&!Environment,!, vol.19, issue.2, pp.209-216, 1996.

!. E. Richard, !. Gaillard, !. S. Saïd, !. J. Hamann, and !. F. Klein, !High!red!deer!density!depresses! body!mass!of!roe!deer!fawns, !Oecologia,!, vol.163, issue.1, pp.91-97, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539458

!. A. Richardson and !. J. Keefe, !Phenology!of!Ecosystem!Processes, 2009.

!. C. Robbins, !. T. Hanley, !. A. Hagerman, !. O. Hjeljord, !. D. Baker et al., !Role! of!tannins!in!defending!plants! against!ruminants:!reduction!in!protein!availability, !Ecology,!, vol.68, issue.1, pp.98-107, 1987.

!. C. Robbins, !. S. Mole, !. A. Hagerman, and !. T. Hanley, !Role!of!tannins!in!defending!plants! against!ruminants:!reduction!in!dry!matter!digestion?!Ecology, !, vol.68, issue.6, pp.1606-1615, 1987.

!. P. Robbins, !. R. Alessandro, !. L. Stelinski, and !. S. Lapointe, !Volatile!Profiles!of!Young! Leaves! of! Rutaceae! spp.! Varying! In! Susceptibility! to! the! Asian! Citrus! Psyllid! (Hemiptera:! Psyllidae, vol.95, pp.774-776, 2012.

!. T. Rooney, !. S. Wiegmann, !. D. Rogers, and !. D. Waller, !Biotic!impoverishment!and! homogenization! in! unfragmented! forest! understory! communities, ! Conservation! Biology,!, vol.18, issue.3, pp.787-798, 2004.

!. G. Rouault, !. Candau, !. F. Lieutier, !. Nageleisen, !. Martin et al., !Effects! of!drought!and!heat!on!forest!insect!populations!in!relation!to!the!2003!drought!in!Western!, Europe.!Annals!of!Forest!Science,!, vol.63, issue.6, pp.613-624, 2006.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00884014

!. F. Roucher, , 2014.

!. A. Rozman, !. J. Diaci, !. A. Krese, !. G. Fidej, and !. D. Rozenbergar, !Forest!regeneration!dynamics! following!bark!beetle!outbreak!in!Norway!spruce!stands:!Influence!of!meso-relief,!forest!edge! distance!and!deer!browsing, !Forest!Ecology!and!Management, vol.353, pp.196-207, 2015.

!. T. Rudel, ! Three! paths! to! forest! expansion:! a! comparative! historical! analysis, ! In! Reforesting!landscapes!, vol.10, pp.45-57, 2009.

!. A. Rutberg, !The!science!of!deer!management:!an!animal!welfare!perspective, 1997.

!. P. Saccone, !. S. Delzon, !. P. Jean-philippe, !. J. Brun, and !. R. Michalet, ! The! role! of! biotic! interactions! in! altering! tree! seedling! responses! to! an! extreme! climatic! event, ! Journal! of! Vegetation!Science,!, vol.20, issue.3, pp.403-414, 2009.

!. L. Sallas, !. Luomala, !. J. Ultriainen, !. P. Kainulainen, and !. J. Holopainen, ! Contrasting! effects! of! elevated! carbon! dioxide! concentration! and! temperature! on! Rubisco! activity,! chlorophyll! fluorescence,! needle! ultrastructure! and! secondary! metabolites! in! conifer! seedlings, Tree!Physiology, vol.23, issue.2, pp.97-108, 2003.

!. G. Sanson, !. J. Read, !. N. Aranwela, !. F. Clissold, and !. P. Peeters, ! Measurement! of! leaf! biomechanical!properties!in!studies!of!herbivory:!Opportunities,!problems!and!procedures, ! Austral!Ecology,!, vol.26, pp.535-546, 2001.

!. R. Scheller and !. D. Mladenoff, ! A! spatially! interactive! simulation! of! climate! change,! harvesting,!wind,!and!tree!species!migration!and!projected!changes!to!forest!composition!and! biomass!in!northern!Wisconsin, !USA.!Global!Change!Biology, vol.11, issue.2, pp.307-321, 2005.

!. J. Schultz, !. H. Appel, !. A. Ferrieri, and !. T. Arnold, !Flexible!resource!allocation!during! plant!defense!responses, !Frontiers!in!Plant!Science,!, vol.4, pp.1-11, 2013.