A. Aderem and D. Underhill, MECHANISMS OF PHAGOCYTOSIS IN MACROPHAGES, Annual Review of Immunology, vol.17, issue.1, pp.593-623, 1999.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.immunol.17.1.593

F. Alliot, I. Godin, and B. Pessac, Microglia derive from progenitors, originating from the yolk sac, and which proliferate in the brain, Developmental Brain Research, vol.117, issue.2, pp.145-152, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-3806(99)00113-3

F. Alliot, E. Lecain, B. Grima, and B. Pessac, Microglial progenitors with a high proliferative potential in the embryonic and adult mouse brain., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.88, issue.4, pp.1541-1545, 1991.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.88.4.1541

A. Alonso and M. Hernan, Temporal trends in the incidence of multiple sclerosis: A systematic review, Neurology, vol.71, issue.2, pp.129-135, 2008.
DOI : 10.1212/01.wnl.0000316802.35974.34

D. Arnold and P. Matthews, MRI in the diagnosis and management of multiple sclerosis, Neurology, vol.58, issue.Issue 8, Supplement 4, pp.23-31, 2002.
DOI : 10.1212/WNL.58.8_suppl_4.S23

C. Auffray, M. Sieweke, and F. Geissmann, Blood Monocytes: Development, Heterogeneity, and Relationship with Dendritic Cells, Annual Review of Immunology, vol.27, issue.1, pp.669-692, 2009.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132557

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00407757

L. Barbeito, M. Pehar, P. Cassina, M. Vargas, H. Peluffo et al., A role for astrocytes in motor neuron loss in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Brain Research Reviews, vol.47, issue.1-3, pp.263-274, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.05.003

I. Bates, J. Boggs, J. Feix, and G. Harauz, Membrane-anchoring and Charge Effects in the Interaction of Myelin Basic Protein with Lipid Bilayers Studied by Site-directed Spin Labeling, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.278, issue.31, pp.29041-29047, 2003.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.M302766200

N. Baumann and D. Pham-dinh, Biology of oligodendrocyte and myelin in the mammalian central nervous system, Physiol Rev, vol.81, pp.871-927, 2001.

W. Chan, S. Kohsaka, and P. Rezaie, The origin and cell lineage of microglia???New concepts, Brain Research Reviews, vol.53, issue.2, pp.344-354, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.11.002

A. Compston and . Cc, Mc Alpine's Multiple Sclerosis, 2005.

C. Confavreux and S. Vukusic, The natural history of multiple sclerosis, Rev Prat, vol.56, pp.1313-1320, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/B978-0-443-07271-0.50006-9

D. Davalos, J. Grutzendler, G. Yang, J. Kim, Y. Zuo et al., ATP mediates rapid microglial response to local brain injury in vivo, Nature Neuroscience, vol.19, issue.6, pp.752-758, 2005.
DOI : 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2294-04.2004

N. Davoust, C. Vuaillat, G. Cavillon, C. Domenget, E. Hatterer et al., Bone marrow CD34+/B220+ progenitors target the inflamed brain and display in vitro differentiation potential toward microglia, The FASEB Journal, vol.20, issue.12, pp.2081-2092, 2006.
DOI : 10.1096/fj.05-5593com

B. Engelhardt and R. Ransohoff, The ins and outs of T-lymphocyte trafficking to the CNS: anatomical sites and molecular mechanisms, Trends in Immunology, vol.26, issue.9, pp.485-495, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.it.2005.07.004

S. Fedoroff and C. Hao, Origin of Microglia and their Regulation by Astroglia, Adv Exp Med Biol, vol.296, pp.135-142, 1991.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4684-8047-4_14

S. Fedoroff, R. Zhai, and J. Novak, Microglia and astroglia have a common progenitor cell, 1997.
DOI : 10.1002/(sici)1097-4547(19971101)50:3<477::aid-jnr14>3.3.co;2-k

J. Fontenot, M. Gavin, and A. Rudensky, Foxp3 programs the development and function of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells, Nature Immunology, vol.4, issue.4, pp.330-336, 2003.
DOI : 10.1038/ni904

R. Franklin and C. Ffrench-constant, Remyelination in the CNS: from biology to therapy, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol.2, issue.11, pp.839-855, 2008.
DOI : 10.1038/nrn2480

E. Frohman, M. Racke, and C. Raine, Multiple Sclerosis ??? The Plaque and Its Pathogenesis, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.354, issue.9, pp.942-955, 2006.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra052130

N. Fujiwara and K. Kobayashi, Macrophages in Inflammation, Current Drug Target -Inflammation & Allergy, vol.4, issue.3, pp.281-286, 2005.
DOI : 10.2174/1568010054022024

C. Genoud, C. Quairiaux, P. Steiner, H. Hirling, E. Welker et al., Plasticity of Astrocytic Coverage and Glutamate Transporter Expression in Adult Mouse Cortex, PLoS Biology, vol.6, issue.11, p.343, 2006.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040343.sg001

C. Giaume and K. Mccarthy, Control of gap-junctional communication in astrocytic networks, Trends in Neurosciences, vol.19, issue.8, pp.319-325, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/0166-2236(96)10046-1

S. Gordon and P. Taylor, Monocyte and macrophage heterogeneity, Nature Reviews Immunology, vol.33, issue.12, pp.953-964, 2005.
DOI : 10.1038/nri1733

I. Griffiths, M. Klugmann, T. Anderson, D. Yool, C. Thomson et al., Axonal Swellings and Degeneration in Mice Lacking the Major Proteolipid of Myelin, Science, vol.280, issue.5369, pp.1610-1613, 1998.
DOI : 10.1126/science.280.5369.1610

M. Haber, L. Zhou, and K. Murai, Cooperative Astrocyte and Dendritic Spine Dynamics at Hippocampal Excitatory Synapses, Journal of Neuroscience, vol.26, issue.35, pp.8881-8891, 2006.
DOI : 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1302-06.2006

C. Hao, A. Richardson, and S. Fedoroff, Macrophage-like cells originate from neuroepithelium in culture: Characterization and properties of the macrophage-like cells, International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, vol.9, issue.1, pp.1-14, 1991.
DOI : 10.1016/0736-5748(91)90067-V

W. Hickey, K. Vass, and H. Lassmann, Bone Marrow-derived Elements in the Central Nervous System: An Immunohistochemical and Ultrastructural Survey of Rat Chimeras, Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology, vol.51, issue.3, pp.246-256, 1992.
DOI : 10.1097/00005072-199205000-00002

J. Hirrlinger, S. Hulsmann, and F. Kirchhoff, Astroglial processes show spontaneous motility at active synaptic terminals in situ, European Journal of Neuroscience, vol.78, issue.8, pp.2235-2239, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00717-7

R. Hohlfeld and H. Wekerle, Autoimmune concepts of multiple sclerosis as a basis for selective immunotherapy: From pipe dreams to (therapeutic) pipelines, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.101, issue.Supplement 2, pp.14599-14606, 2004.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.0404874101

R. Houlgatte, M. Mallat, P. Brachet, and A. Prochiantz, Secretion of nerve growth factor in cultures of glial cells and neurons derived from different regions of the mouse brain, Journal of Neuroscience Research, vol.223, issue.2, pp.143-152, 1989.
DOI : 10.1002/jnr.490240204

D. Hume, I. Ross, S. Himes, R. Sasmono, C. Wells et al., The mononuclear phagocyte system revisited, J Leukoc Biol, vol.72, pp.621-627, 2002.

S. Jander, J. Pohl, D. Urso, D. Gillen, C. Stoll et al., Time course and cellular localization of interleukin-10 mRNA and protein expression in autoimmune inflammation of the rat central nervous system, Am J Pathol, vol.152, pp.975-982, 1998.

C. Kaur, A. Hao, C. Wu, and E. Ling, Origin of microglia, Microscopy Research and Technique, vol.115, issue.1, pp.2-9, 2001.
DOI : 10.1002/jemt.1114

P. Kivisakk, C. Trebst, Z. Liu, B. Tucky, T. Sorensen et al., T-cells in the cerebrospinal fluid express a similar repertoire of inflammatory chemokine receptors in the absence or presence of CNS inflammation: implications for CNS trafficking, Clinical & Experimental Immunology, vol.57, issue.3, pp.510-518, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2002.01947.x

J. Kurtzke, Historical and Clinical Perspectives of the Expanded Disability Status Scale, Neuroepidemiology, vol.31, issue.1, pp.1-9, 2008.
DOI : 10.1159/000136645

A. Kutzelnigg, C. Lucchinetti, C. Stadelmann, W. Bruck, H. Rauschka et al., Cortical demyelination and diffuse white matter injury in multiple sclerosis, Brain, vol.128, issue.11, pp.2705-2712, 2005.
DOI : 10.1093/brain/awh641

URL : http://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh641

R. Ladeby, M. Wirenfeldt, D. Garcia-ovejero, C. Fenger, L. Dissing-olesen et al., Microglial cell population dynamics in the injured adult central nervous system, Brain Research Reviews, vol.48, issue.2, pp.196-206, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.12.009

C. Leone, L. Pavec, G. Meme, W. Porcheray, F. Samah et al., Characterization of human monocyte-derived microglia-like cells, Glia, vol.181, issue.3, pp.183-192, 2006.
DOI : 10.1002/glia.20372

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00512375

E. Ling, Transformation of monocytes into amoeboid microglia in the corpus callosum of postnatal rats, as shown by labelling monocytes by carbon particles, J Anat, vol.128, pp.847-858, 1979.

E. Ling, C. Kaur, and J. Lu, Origin, nature, and some functional considerations of intraventricular macrophages, with special reference to the epiplexus cells, Microscopy Research and Technique, vol.55, issue.1, pp.43-56, 1998.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0029(19980401)41:1<43::AID-JEMT5>3.0.CO;2-V

B. Liu, K. Wang, H. Gao, B. Mandavilli, J. Wang et al., Molecular consequences of activated microglia in the brain: overactivation induces apoptosis, Journal of Neurochemistry, vol.77, issue.1, pp.182-189, 2001.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.t01-1-00216.x

C. Lucchinetti, . Bw, J. Parisi, B. Scheithauer, M. Rodriguez et al., Heterogeneity of multiple sclerosis lesions: Implications for the pathogenesis of demyelination, Annals of Neurology, vol.143, issue.6, pp.707-717, 2000.
DOI : 10.1002/1531-8249(200006)47:6<707::AID-ANA3>3.0.CO;2-Q

M. Mallat and B. Chamak, Lineage relationship between oligodendrocytes and brain macrophages?, Neuroscience Letters, vol.99, issue.1-2, pp.12-17, 1989.
DOI : 10.1016/0304-3940(89)90256-5

A. Mantovani, A. Sica, and M. Locati, New vistas on macrophage differentiation and activation, European Journal of Immunology, vol.304, issue.1, pp.14-16, 2007.
DOI : 10.1002/eji.200636910

A. Mantovani, S. Sozzani, M. Locati, P. Allavena, and A. Sica, Macrophage polarization: tumor-associated macrophages as a paradigm for polarized M2 mononuclear phagocytes, Trends in Immunology, vol.23, issue.11, pp.549-555, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S1471-4906(02)02302-5

R. Martini and M. Schachner, Molecular bases of myelin formation as revealed by investigations on mice deficient in glial cell surface molecules, Glia, vol.14, issue.4, pp.298-310, 1997.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1136(199704)19:4<298::AID-GLIA3>3.0.CO;2-U

D. Mason, A very high level of crossreactivity is an essential feature of the T-cell receptor, Immunology Today, vol.19, issue.9, pp.395-404, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0167-5699(98)01299-7

P. Mcmenamin, Distribution and phenotype of dendritic cells and resident tissue macrophages in the dura mater, leptomeninges, and choroid plexus of the rat brain as demonstrated in wholemount preparations, The Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol.166, issue.4, pp.553-562, 1999.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19990322)405:4<553::AID-CNE8>3.0.CO;2-6

S. Nadeau and S. Rivest, Role of microglial-derived tumor necrosis factor in mediating CD14 transcription and nuclear factor kappa B activity in the brain during endotoxemia, J Neurosci, vol.20, pp.3456-3468, 2000.

M. Nedergaard, B. Ransom, and S. Goldman, New roles for astrocytes: Redefining the functional architecture of the brain, Trends in Neurosciences, vol.26, issue.10, pp.523-530, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tins.2003.08.008

A. Nimmerjahn, F. Kirchhoff, and F. Helmchen, Resting Microglial Cells Are Highly Dynamic Surveillants of Brain Parenchyma in Vivo, Science, vol.308, issue.5726, pp.1314-1318, 2005.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1110647

J. Noseworthy, C. Lucchinetti, M. Rodriguez, and B. Weinshenker, Multiple Sclerosis, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.343, issue.13, pp.938-952, 2000.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM200009283431307

V. Perry, . Hd, and S. Gordon, Immunohistochemical localization of macrophages and microglia in the adult and developing mouse brain, Neuroscience, vol.15, issue.2, pp.313-326, 1985.
DOI : 10.1016/0306-4522(85)90215-5

E. Poitras and A. Houde, La PCR en temps réel : principes et applications, Reviews in Biology and Biotechnology, vol.2, pp.2-11, 2002.

J. Priller, A. Flugel, T. Wehner, M. Boentert, C. Haas et al., Targeting gene-modified hematopoietic cells to the central nervous system: use of green fluorescent protein uncovers microglial engraftment, Nature Medicine, vol.7, issue.12, pp.1356-1361, 2001.
DOI : 10.1038/nm1201-1356

R. Quarles, Glycoproteins of myelin sheaths, Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, vol.40, issue.1, pp.1-12, 1997.
DOI : 10.1007/BF02736858

G. Raivich, Like cops on the beat: the active role of resting microglia, Trends in Neurosciences, vol.28, issue.11, pp.571-573, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tins.2005.09.001

S. Ramagopalan, J. Knight, and G. Ebers, Multiple sclerosis and the major histocompatibility complex, Current Opinion in Neurology, vol.22, issue.3, pp.219-225, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/WCO.0b013e32832b5417

D. Randolph and C. Fathman, Regulatory T Cells and Their Therapeutic Potential, Annual Review of Medicine, vol.57, issue.1, pp.381-402, 2006.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.med.57.121304.131337

D. Rappolee and Z. Werb, Secretory products of phagocytes, Current Opinion in Immunology, vol.1, issue.1, pp.47-55, 1988.
DOI : 10.1016/0952-7915(88)90050-7

T. Reese and M. Karnovsky, FINE STRUCTURAL LOCALIZATION OF A BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER TO EXOGENOUS PEROXIDASE, The Journal of Cell Biology, vol.34, issue.1, pp.207-217, 1967.
DOI : 10.1083/jcb.34.1.207

P. Rezaie and D. Male, Colonisation of the developing human brain and spinal cord by microglia: a review, Microscopy Research and Technique, vol.105, issue.6, pp.359-382, 1999.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0029(19990615)45:6<359::AID-JEMT4>3.0.CO;2-D

J. Ridet, S. Malhotra, A. Privat, and F. Gage, Reactive astrocytes: cellular and molecular cues to biological function, Trends in Neurosciences, vol.20, issue.12, pp.570-577, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0166-2236(97)01139-9

A. Sadovnick, H. Armstrong, G. Rice, D. Bulman, L. Hashimoto et al., A population-based study of multiple sclerosis in twins: Update, Annals of Neurology, vol.42, issue.suppl 2, pp.281-285, 1993.
DOI : 10.1002/ana.410330309

S. Scherer, Nodes, Paranodes, and Incisures: From Form to Function, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol.15, issue.1 CHARCOT-MARIE, pp.131-142, 1999.
DOI : 10.1002/glia.440040602

J. Schmidtmayer, C. Jacobsen, G. Miksch, and J. Sievers, Blood monocytes and spleen macrophages differentiate into microglia-like cells on monolayers of astrocytes: Membrane currents, Glia, vol.4, issue.4, pp.259-267, 1994.
DOI : 10.1002/glia.440120403

J. Serot, M. Bene, B. Foliguet, and G. Faure, Monocyte-derived IL-10-secreting dendritic cells in choroid plexus epithelium, Journal of Neuroimmunology, vol.105, issue.2, pp.115-119, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0165-5728(99)00240-4

J. Sievers, J. Schmidtmayer, and R. Parwaresch, Blood monocytes and spleen macrophages differentiate into microglia-like cells when cultured on astrocytes, Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger, vol.176, issue.1, pp.45-51, 1994.
DOI : 10.1016/S0940-9602(11)80414-0

A. Simard and S. Rivest, Role of inflammation in the neurobiology of stem cells, NeuroReport, vol.15, issue.15, pp.2305-2310, 2004.
DOI : 10.1097/00001756-200410250-00001

M. Smith, Phagocytic properties of microglia in vitro: Implications for a role in multiple sclerosis and EAE, Microscopy Research and Technique, vol.91, issue.2, pp.81-94, 2001.
DOI : 10.1002/jemt.1123

N. Strazielle and J. Ghersi-egea, Choroid Plexus in the Central Nervous System: Biology and Physiopathology, Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology, vol.59, issue.7, pp.561-574, 2000.
DOI : 10.1093/jnen/59.7.561

W. Streit and G. Kreutzberg, Response of endogenous glial cells to motor neuron degeneration induced by toxic ricin, The Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol.70, issue.2, pp.248-263, 1988.
DOI : 10.1002/cne.902680209

W. Streit, S. Walter, and N. Pennell, Reactive microgliosis, Progress in Neurobiology, vol.57, issue.6, pp.563-581, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S0301-0082(98)00069-0

A. Svejgaard, The immunogenetics of multiple sclerosis, Immunogenetics, vol.6, issue.1, pp.275-286, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/s00251-008-0295-1

K. Takahashi, F. Yamamura, and M. Naito, Differentiation, maturation, and proliferation of macrophages in the mouse yolk sac: a light-microscopic, enzyme-cytochemical, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural study, J Leukoc Biol, vol.45, pp.87-96, 1989.

A. Varin and S. Gordon, Alternative activation of macrophages: Immune function and cellular biology, Immunobiology, vol.214, issue.7, pp.630-641, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.imbio.2008.11.009

C. Vuaillat, G. Androdias, N. Davoust, and S. Nataf, About multiple sclerosis, natalizumab, and CD34+ hematopoietic progenitors, Blood, vol.112, issue.1, pp.208-209, 2008.
DOI : 10.1182/blood-2008-04-150813

H. Waldner, M. Collins, and V. Kuchroo, Activation of antigen-presenting cells by microbial products breaks self tolerance and induces autoimmune disease, Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.113, issue.7, pp.990-997, 2004.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI19388

H. Wekerle, L'??nigme de l'entr??e des lymphocytes T auto-immuns dans les tissus nerveux centraux et de leur attaque contre les structures de my??line, Comptes Rendus Biologies, vol.330, issue.1, pp.1-12, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.crvi.2006.10.002

URL : http://hdl.handle.net/11858/00-001M-0000-0012-220D-0

G. Wolswijk, GD3+ cells in the adult rat optic nerve are ramified microglia rather than 0-2Aadult progenitor cells, Glia, vol.116, issue.4, pp.244-249, 1994.
DOI : 10.1002/glia.440100403